UV, ultraviolet; NER, nucleotide excision repair; XP, xeroderma pigmentosum; CS, Cockayne syndrome; TTD, trichothiodystrophy; ROS, reactive oxygen species; SSB, single strand break; BER, base excision repair; HBV, hepatitis B virus; HCV, hepatitis C virus; AFB1, Aflatoxin B1; RNS, reactive nitrogen species; HR, homologous recombination; NHEJ, non-homologous end joining; MMR, mismatch repair; HCC, hepatocellular carcinoma; IDL, insertion-deletion loop; MSI, microsatellite instability; CRC, colorectal cancer; CIMP, CpG island methylator phenotype; CE, catechol estrogen; SQ, semiquinone; Q, quinone; DSB, double strand break; IR, ionizing radiation; AML, acute myeloid leukemia; CLL, chronic lymphocytic leukemia. |
Skin |
Sunlight (e.g., UV-B, UV-A) |
Direct DNA photolesions (e.g., (6,4)-photoproducts, cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers) |
NER |
XPA, ERCC3 (XPB), XPC, ERCC2 (XPD), DDB2 (XPE), ERCC4 (XPF), ERCC5 (XPG), POLH (XPV)
|
XP |
ERCC8 (CSA), ERCC6 (CSB), XPB, XPD, XPG
|
CS |
TTDA, XPB, XPD
|
TTD |
XPA, XPC, XPE, XPF
|
Cutaneous neoplasms |
ROS (e.g., hydrogen peroxide, hydroxyl radicals, superoxide anions) |
Oxidative lesions, SSBs |
BER |
LIG1
|
Skin maladies |
Liver |
HBV and HCV infection, aflatoxins (e.g., AFB1), ROS, RNS |
DNA adducts, oxidative lesions, genetic and epigenetic abnormalities |
HR, NHEJ, NER, BER, MMR |
p53, XRCC1, OGG1, ATM, MRE11A, RAD50, NBN, PARP1
|
HCC |
Pancreas |
ROS (e.g., HOCl, O2·–, NO), RNS (e.g., NO2·, ONOOCO2–)
|
Aromatic DNA adducts, oxidative lesions (e.g., 2-deoxyribose oxidation, nitration and oxidation of dG), SSBs, DSBs |
BER, HR |
BRCA2, PALB2, ATM, DNA-PK, CHK1, CHK2, FANCC, FANCG
|
Chronic pancreatitis, pancreatic cancer |
Colon |
Replication errors, gut microbiota, inflammation, ROS |
Mismatches, IDLs, frameshift or missense mutations |
MMR |
MLH1, MSH2, MSH6, PMS2
|
MSI, CRCs (e.g., Lynch syndrome, CIMP) |
Breast and ovary |
Estrogens and their metabolites (CE-SQs, CE-Qs) |
Oxidative lesions, depurinating adducts (e.g., 4-OHE-1-N3Ade, 4-OHE-1-N7Gua, 2-OHE-6-N3Ade), DSBs |
HR |
BRCA1, ATM, CHEK2, PALB2, BARD1, BRIP1, RAD50, RAD51C, RAD51D, NBN, FANCM, MRE11
|
Breast cancer, ovarian cancer |
Hematopoietic system |
IR exposure, ROS, replication errors |
DSBs, SSBs |
HR, NHEJ, BER |
IDH1, p53, Bcl2, Bcl-Xl, Mcl1, A1, Bax, Noxa, Puma,
p21
|
AML, CLL |