Table 5.
Regression coefficients [95% CI] from the GEE models a with a continuous time scale (days in the study) depicting average change in developmental, growth and nutritional status during follow-up of the intervention
| Explanatory variables | Developmental outcomes | ||||||
| FM | GM | LA | PS | SE | |||
| β (95%CI) | β (95%CI) | β (95%CI) | β (95%CI) | β (95%CI) | |||
| Group b | 0.099 h [− 0.18, 0.38] p = 484 | 0.37 h [0.09, 0.65] p = 0.010 | − 0.17 g [− 0.55, 0.21] p = 0.377 | 0.11 g [− 0.39, 0.16] p = 0.419 | − 0.22 g [− 3.55, 3,11] p = 0.898 | ||
| Time c | Linear term | 1.10 h [0.91, 1.21] p < 0.001 | 1.10 h [0.93, 1.24] p < 0.001 | 0.81 h [0.68, 00.95] p < 0.001 | 1.46 h [1.12, 1.80] p < 0.001 | −4.30 g [− 10.11, 1.57] p = 0.151 | |
| Quadratic term | −0.05 g [− 0.13, 0.02] p = 0.151 | 0.04 g [− 0.05, 0.12] p = 0.330 | − 0.03 g [− 0.13, 0.06] p = 0.480 | −0.06 g [− 0.10, − 0.01] p = 0.019 | 0.39 h [0.24, 0.54] p < 0.001 | ||
| Baseline data | MUACZ | 0.15 h [0.07, 0.24] p < 0.001 | 0.07 g [−0.02, 0.16] p = 0.127 | – | 0.13 h [0.06, 0.20] p < 0.001 | −0.45 g [− 1.30, 0.41] p = 0.310 | |
| WAZ | – | – | 0.20 h [0.09, 0.31] p < 0.001 | – | – | ||
| Development | 0.76 h [0.71, 0.81] p < 0.001 | 0.93 h [0.88, 0.98] p < 0.001 | 0.81 h [0.76,0.86] p < 0.001 | 0.87 h [0.83, 0.92] p < 0.001 | 0.86 h [0. 81, 0. 91] p < 0.001 | ||
| Age | 0.06 h [0.04, 0.08] p < 0.001 | 0.03 h [0.01, 0.04] p < 0.001 | 0.08 h [0.05, 0.10] p < 0.001 | 0.04 h [0.02, 0.06] p < 0.001 | 0.13 h [0.04, 0.23] p = 0.008 | ||
| Interactions of Time c with | Baseline development | −0.06 h [− 0.07, − 0.04] p < 0.001 | − 0.06 h [− 0.07, − 0.04] p < 0.001 | −0.06 h [− 0.08, − 0.05] p < 0.001 | −0.07 h [− 0.08, − 0.06] p < 0.001 | −0.08 h [− 0.09, − 0.06] p < 0.001 | |
| Baseline Age | 0.01 h [0.001, 0.012] p = 0.018 | 0.02 h [0.01, 0.022] p < 0.001 | 0.03 h [0.02, 0.04] p < 0.001 | 0.014 h [0.001, 0.02] p = 0.001 | 0.04 [0.01, 0.06] p = 0.010 | ||
| Interactions of Group with | Time c (Linear) | 0.15 g [0.07, 0.22] p < 0.001 | 0.41 g [− 0.44, 1.27] p = 0.344 | 0.02 g [− 0.92, 0. 96] p = 0.971 | − 0.06 g [− 0.72, 0.59] p = 0.850 | 1.63 g [−6.73, 9,98] p = 0.703 | |
| Interaction of Sex f with Time (Linear) | Control female | − 0.02 g [− 0.13, 0.08] p = 0.657 | −0.07 g [− 0.20, − 0.06] p = 0.302 | −0.08 g [− 0.21, 0.05] p = 0.240 | −0.004 g [− 0.1, 0.09] p = 0.940 | 0.29 g [− 0.92, 0.50] p = 0.638 | |
| Intervention Female | 0.01 g [− 0.09, 0.11] p = 0.827 | − 0.02 g [− 0.14, − 1.00] p = 0.742 | 0.04 g [− 0.08, 0.17] p = 0.525 | −0.08 g [− 0.17, 0.01] p = 0.086 | −0.47 g [− 1.60, 0.67] p = 0.421 | ||
| Interaction of Baseline development with Time (Linear) | 0.02 g [−0.01, 0.04] p = 0.206 | − 0.02 g [− 0.05, 0.003] p = 0.086 | 0.004 g [− 0.02, 0.03] p = 0.765 | −0.02 g [− 0.04, 0.004] p = 0.102 | −0.02 g [− 0.04, 0.01] p = 0.236 | ||
| Interaction of Baseline Age with Time (Linear) | −0.005g [− 0.01, 0.004] p = 0.253 | 0.01 g [− 0.004, 0.01] p = 0.278 | 0.001 g [− 0.01, 0.01] p = 0.889 | 0.01 g [− 0.001, 0.02] p = 0.072 | −0.01 g [− 0.07, 0.06] p = 0.861 | ||
| Linear growth d and nutritional e outcomes | |||||||
| Explanatory variables | HAZ | MUACZ | WAZ | WHZ/BAZ | |||
| Group b | −0.26 g [− 0.57, 0.06] p = 0.101 p = 0.113 | 0.07 g [− 0.12, 0.26] p = 0.461 | −0.215 g [− 0.05, 0.47] p = 0.119 | 0.22 g [− 0.13, 0.58] p = 0.214 | |||
| Time c | Linear term | − 0.09 h [− 0.11, − 0.07] p < 0.001 | 0.19 g [− 0.05, 0.44] p = 0.122 | 0.28 g [0.04, 0.53] p = 0.025 | 0.33 h [0.07, 0.59] p = 0.008 | ||
| Quadratic term | 0.004 g [− 0.03, 0.02] p = 0.765 | −0.02 g [− 0.05, 0.02] p = 0.360 | −0.03 g [− 0.06, 0.001] p = 0.061 | −0.04 h [− 0.08, − 0.001] p = 0.045 | |||
| Baseline data | HAZ | 0.85 h [0.81, 0.88] p < 0.001 | 0.004 g [− 0.02, 0.03] p = 0.727 | 0.07 h [0.01, 0.13] p = 0.024 | 0.02 g [− 0.10, 0.14] p = 0.733 | ||
| MUACZ | – | 0.92 h [0.88, 0.96] p < 0.001 | – | – | |||
| WAZ | 0.13 h [0.08, 0.17] p < 0.001 | 0.08 h [0.04, 0.13] p = 0.001 | 0.85 h [0.79, 0.90] p < 0.001 | 0.004 g [− 0.22, 0.21] p = 0.972 | |||
| WHZ or BAZ | – | – | – | 0.82 g [0.75, 0.88] p < 0.001 | |||
| Age | −0.005 g [− 0.01, − 0.001] p = 0.011 | −0.001 g [− 0.003, 0.003] p = 0.949 | 0.002 g [− 0.001, 0.004] p = 0.219 | 0.01 h [0.001, 0.010] p = 0.012 | |||
| Interactions of Time c with | Baseline HAZ | −0.033 h [− 0.038, − 0.028] p < 0.001 | 0.01 g [− 0.01, 0.04] p = 0.202 | 0.01 g [− 0.01, 0.04] p = 0.265 | 0.005 g [− 0.03, 0.04] p = 0.782 | ||
| Baseline MUACZ | – | − 0.09 h [− 0.10, − 0.08] p < 0.001 | – | – | |||
| Baseline WAZ | 0.01 g [− 0.04, 0.05] p = 0.800 | − 0.01 g [− 0.04, 0.02] p = 0.556 | − 0.042 h [− 0.05,-0.036] p < 0.001 | 0.02g [− 0.04, − 0.07] p = 0.510 | |||
| Baseline WHZ or BAZ | – | – | – | − 0.09 h [− 0.11, − 0.07] p < 0.001 | |||
| Baseline Age | 0.001 g [− 0.002, 0.004] p = 0.547 | −0.001 g [− 0.004, 0.002] p = 0.589 | −0.001 g [− 0.003, 0.001] p = 0.328 | 0.0002 g [− 0.003, 0.002] p = 0.824 | |||
| Interactions of Group with, | Interaction between Time c and baseline HAZ | 0.02 g [− 0.01, 0.05] p = 0.260 | – | – | – | ||
| Interaction between Time and baseline MUACZ | – | −0.01g [− 0.005, 0.05] p = 0.879 | – | – | |||
| Interaction between Time and baseline WAZ | – | – | −0.001g [− 0.05, 0.05] p = 0.970 | – | |||
| Interaction between Time and baseline WHZ or BAZ | – | – | – | 0.02 h [0.01, 0.04] p = 0.012 | |||
| Interaction between Time and sex | Female control | −0,02 g [− 0.08, 0.05] p = 0.594 | −0.04 g [− 0.12, 0.05] p = 0.408 | −0.05 g [− 0.12, 0.02] p = 0.136 | −0.03 g [− 0.12, 0.06] p = 0.514 | ||
| Female Intervention | −0.004 g [− 0.05, 0.04] p = 0.868 | −0.06 g [− 0.12, 0.01] p = 0.102 | −0.05 g [− 0.17, 0.06] p = 0.389 | −0.01 g [− 0.08, 0.06] p = 0.819 | |||
Only significant terms (at p < 0.05) were kept in the models
BAZ body-mass-index-for-age z score, FM fine motor, GEE Generalized Estimating Equations, GM gross motor, HAZ height/length-for-age z score, LA language, MUACZ mid-upper-arm circumference -for-age z score, PS personal social, SE social-emotional, WAZ weight-for-age z score, WHZ weight-for-height/length z score
a Intervention effect controlling for baseline score, baseline characteristics, and interactions with time. b Refers to the intervention group (treatment)
c ‘Time’ refers to number of days in the study (duration of follow-up); d ‘growth’ refers to baseline linear growth expressed in HAZ score
e‘nutritional’ refers to baseline nutritional status expressed in MUACZ score and WAZ score. f sex; the reference is female
g Parameter estimates obtained from a full model by simultaneously including all potential explanatory variables
h Parameter estimates obtained from a reduced model with statistically significant explanatory variables along with only essential non-significant model terms