Table 1.

Characteristics of included studies.

Study author, year, study design, country	Population (n)	Setting and source of funding	Field of study	Intervention type	Duration of the intervention	Control	Outcome(s) assessed
Bochicchio, 2006, RCTa, US [49]	12 primary care physicians	Primary care setting, industrial funding (Johnson & Johnson, Research-In-Motion Corporation)	Antibiotic decision management guide	Mobile digital education	3 months	Traditional education (usual practice)	Knowledge
Butler, 2012, RCT, UK [48]	68 practices, 263 primary care physicians, and 480,000 patients (approximate number)	Primary care setting, nonindustrial funding	Multifaceted educational program to reduce antibiotic dispensing in primary care	Online blended education (online digital education plus traditional education)	1.5 hours	Traditional education (usual practice)	Clinical practice improvement; patient-related outcomes; economic outcome(s)
Chen, 2014, cRCTb, China [47]	100 practices and 479 primary care physicians	Primary care setting, nonindustrial funding	Management of upper respiratory infection	Mobile digital education	N/Ac	Traditional education (traditional CMEd program)	Knowledge; clinical practice improvement; health care professionals’ attitude; economic outcome(s)
Dekker, 2018, cRCT, the Netherlands [45]	35 practices, 75 primary care physicians, and 1009 patients	Primary care setting, nonindustrial funding	Antibiotic prescription in acute respiratory infection	Online digital education	N/A	Traditional education (usual practice)	Clinical practice improvement; patient-related outcomes
Legare, 2012, cRCT, Canada [44]	9 practices, 149 primary care physicians, and 359 patients	Primary care setting, nonindustrial funding	Antibiotic prescription in acute respiratory infection	Online blended education (online digital education plus traditional education)	4 hours	Traditional education (usual practice)	Patient-related outcomes
Meeker, 2016, cRCT, USA [41]	47 practices and 248 primary care physicians	Primary care setting, nonindustrial funding	Antibiotic prescription among primary care practices	Online digital education	>18 months	Traditional education (usual practice)	Clinical practice improvement
McNulty, 2018, cRCT, UK [42]	150 practices and 166 primary care physicians	Primary care setting, nonindustrial funding	Antibiotic dispensing in primary care	Online blended education (online digital education plus traditional education)	1 hour	Traditional education (usual practice)	Clinical practice improvement
Little, 2013, cRCT, six European countries (England, Wales, Belgium, the Netherlands, Spain, and Poland) [43]	246 practices and 4264 patients	Primary care setting, nonindustrial funding	Antibiotic prescription in acute respiratory infection	Online digital education (CRPe training)	N/A	Traditional education (usual practice)	Clinical practice improvement; health care professionals' attitude; patient-related outcomes; economic outcome(s)
Yardley 2013, cRCT, six European countries (as mentioned above) [39]	246 practices and 4264 patients	Primary care setting, nonindustrial funding	Antibiotic prescription in acute respiratory infection	Online digital education (enhanced-communication training)	N/A	Traditional education (usual practice)	Clinical practice improvement; health care professionals' attitude; patient-related outcomes; economic outcome(s)
Oppong 2018, cRCT, six European countries (as mentioned above) [40]	246 practices and 4264 patients	Primary care setting, nonindustrial funding	Antibiotic prescription in acute respiratory infection	Online digital education (combined CRP and enhanced-communication training)	N/A	Traditional education (usual practice)	Clinical practice improvement; health care professionals' attitude; patient-related outcomes; economic outcome(s

^aRCT: randomized controlled trial.

^bcRCT: cluster randomized controlled trial.

^cN/A: not applicable.

^dCME: continuing medical education.

^eCRP: C-reactive protein.