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. 2019 Sep 16;9:13304. doi: 10.1038/s41598-019-49453-x

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© The Author(s) 2019

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Spaceflight causes photoreceptor degradation and oxidative stress. (A) Immunofluorescence staining for PNA, a marker for cone photoreceptors (green), and HNE, a marker for oxidative stress (red), in the photoreceptor layer. The nuclei were counterstained with DAPI (blue); Scale bar = 50 mm. (B) Cell density for PNA–positive cone photoreceptors; (C) Immunofluorescence staining for HNE (red) in the retina layer. Scale bar = 50 µm; (D) Fluorescent intensity of the HNE marker in the photoreceptor layer of rods and cones (arrow); (E) Fluorescent intensity of the HNE marker across the retina; (F) Log2 fold-change of DEGs under the GO category “negative regulation of oxidative stress-induced cell death”; (B,D,E) Counts were averaged across five retinas per group. Values are represented as mean density ± SEM. Significance values of the spaceflight group compared to ground controls are denoted with ‘*’ (p < 0.05), ‘**’ (p < 0.01), and ‘T’ (strong trend differences between spaceflight and ground controls; p = 0.06).