Table 1.
Various bioceramic compositions printed by common additive manufacturing techniques.
| Printing Technique | Composition | Densification Method | Strut Size (µm) | Pore Size (µm) | Porosity (%) | Finish Quality + | Reference | Pore Shape |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 3DP | CaSO4/HA/β-TCP | Setting reaction | 1000 –2000 | 1000–2000 | 50 | E | Zhou et al. [45] | Cubic |
| 3DP | HA/β-TCP | 1200 °C | NA | 100–600 | 65.3 | E | Strobel et al. [46] | Spherical |
| 3DP | α-TCP | Setting reaction | 1500 | 844 | 59.2 | E | Castilho et al. [47] | Spherical to Cubic |
| 3DP | α-TCP/CaCO3 | Setting reaction | 1250 | 300 | 68 | E | Castilho et al. [48] | Cubic |
| 3DP | β-TCP, β-TCP/ZnO/SiO2 | 1250°C | 1000–2000 | 400–700 | 30–50 | E | Feidling et al. [49] | Cubic |
| 3DP | HA | 1250 °C | 330 | 450 | - | F | Seitz et al. [50] | cubic |
| 3DP | HA and β-TCP | 1250 °C | 900 | 500 | 40 | F | Warnke et al. [35] | Cubic |
| 3DP | Ca4(PO4)2O | Setting reaction | 200 | 750 | 40 | E | Mandal et al. [51] | Cubic |
| 3DP | α/β-TCP/Ca4(PO4)2O | Setting reaction and 1100 °C | 1000 | 500 | 56–61 | E | Vorndran et al. [52] | Cubic |
| 3DP | CaSiO3 precursors | 900 °C | ~1000 | ~2000 | 48–53 | F | Zocca et al. [53] | Cubic |
| SL | 45S5 Bioglass® | 1000 °C | 540–1000 | 1000 | 50 | B | Tesavibul et al. [54] | Cylindrical cellular |
| SL | β-TCP | 1200 °C | ~250 | 400 | 75 or 50 | A | Schmidleithner et al. [55] | Grid and Kagome structure |
| SL | 45S5 Bioglass® | 950 °C | 307 | 700–400 | ~60 | A | Thavornyutikarn et al. [56] | Diamond-like structures |
| SL | CaSiO3–CaMgSi2O6 | 1100 °C | ~500 | ~500 | 57–85 | B | Elsayed et al. [57] | Diamond, kelvin and cubic structures |
| SL | Ca3−xM2x(PO4)2 (M = Na, K) | 900–1400° C | 500 | 50–750 | 70–80 | B | Putlyaev et al. [58] | Kelvin structure |
| SL | β-TCP | 1150 °C | 1000 | 600–800 | 45 | A | Weiguo et al. [59] | Spherical and cylindrical |
| DIW | Ca3SiO5 | Setting reaction | 200 (minimum) | 200 (minimum) | 60–65 | C | Yang et al. [60] | Logpile* |
| DIW | Ca7Si2P2O16 | 1400 °C | 1000 | 200 (minimum) | Up to 86 | C | Uo et al. [61] | Logpile |
| DIW | Mesoporous bioactive glass/β-TCP | 1100 °C | 250 | 400 | 58 | C | Zhang et al. [62] | Logpile |
| DIW | Ca2O4Si/CaSO4 | Setting reaction | 450 | 350 | 67 | D | Pei et al. [63] | Logpile |
| DIW | Ca2MgSi2O7 | 1350 °C | 450 | 400 | 65 | D | Wang et al. [64] | Logpile |
| DIW | Cu, Fe, Mn, Co-doped bioactive glass | 1300°C | 500 | 250 | <50 | D | Liu et al. [65] | Logpile |
| DIW | Sr doped Ca2ZnSi2O7 /Al2O3 | 1250 °C | 540 | 450–1200 | 50–70 | D | Roohani et al. [66] | Logpile |
| DIW | 45S5 bioactive glass | 1050 °C | ~250 | 287–820 | 60 to 80 | C | Eqtesadi et al. [67] | Logpile |
| DIW | CaSiO3-CaMgSi2O6 | 1100 °C | 320 | 390 | 68–76 | D | Elsayed et al. [68] | Logpile |
| SLS | 13-93 bioactive glass | 700 °C | 1000 | 1100 | 50 | E | Kolan et al. [69] | Cubic |
| SLS | 13-93 bioactive glass | 695 °C | 1000 | 1000 | 50 | E | Kolan et al. [70] | Cubic |
| SLS | Ca2MgSi2O7 | 715–914 °C | 2000 | 1000 | <20 | E | Shuai et al. [71] | Cubic |
| SLS | β-TCP/58S bioactive glass | No post treatment | 1100 | 1500 | 56.04 | F | Liu et al. [72] | Cubic |
| SLS | HA/β-TCP | No post treatment | 800 | 1000 | 70.1 | F | Gao et al. [73] | Cubic |
| SLS | 45S5 bioglass | No post treatment | ~3000 | 2000 × 2000 × 5000 | ~15 | F | Liu et al. [74] | Channels |
| SLS | 58S Bioactive glass/graphene | No post treatment | ~1000 | 800 | ~50 | F | Gao et al. [75] | Cubic |
+ The finish quality is ranked based on the (i) porosity and roughness of the struts, (ii) differences between the computer model and print (not due to the sintering which results in a uniform volumetric shrinkage), and (iii) strut uniformity. Rank A: Scaffolds with solid microstructure (<1% porosity) and uniform struts (a size variation of ~20–50 µm), Rank B: Scaffolds with uniform struts that contain scattered micropores, Rank C: Scaffolds with solid microstructure and slight size variation in struts (~200 µm), Rank D: Scaffolds with microporous struts with slight size variation in struts, Rank E: Scaffolds with highly microporous and rough struts, or with nonuniform struts(size variation >300 µm), Rank F: Scaffolds with highly microporous, rough, and nonuniform struts. * For scaffolds fabricated by DIW technique, pore size is considered as the distance between deposited filaments (struts) on an x-y plane. Since in DIW technique, 3D constructs are generated by stacking of 2D layers that consist of filaments arranged in 2D directions, the definition of the pore is a space between the intersections of the filaments in three stacked layers. The pore size in z-direction always equals to the layer thickness (nozzle diameter), and in x-y direction equals to distance between adjacent filaments. Therefore, pores in scaffolds generated by DIW have a unique 3D geometry which is labeled as logpile.