Table 1.
Methylation changes associated with smoking, POP, phthalates, and BPA exposure during pregnancy and childhood.
| Xenobiotic | Population | Sample | Exposure association | Reference | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Change | Sequence | ||||
| Prenatal exposure to tobacco smoke | Children from USA (n = 348) | Buccal cells | + | LINE1a, AXL, PTPRO | [21] |
| – | AluYb8 | ||||
| Women from USA (n = 90) | Peripheral blood granulocytes | – | SAT2 | [22] | |
| Mother-offspring pairs from UK (n = 800) | Cord and blood cells | + | GFI1b, ATP9 Ab, AHRR, CYP1 A1, CNTNAP2 | [23] | |
| – | KLF13b, MYO1G | ||||
| Pregnant women from USA (n = 34) | Placenta | – | CYP1 A1 | [28] | |
| PBDE47 | Mother-newborn pairs (n = 46) | Maternal and cord blood cells | – | TNFα | [77] |
| o,p’-DDTs | – | Aluc | |||
| o,p’-DDT, p,p’-DDT p,p’-DDE and PBDEs | Children at birth and/or age 9 (n = 358) | Blood cells | – | LINE1d | [83] |
| + | LINE1e | ||||
| Phthalates | Children from Taiwan (n = 256) | Blood cells | + | TNF-α | [86] |
| Children from USA (n = 235) | Cord blood and blood cells | +/– | LINE1, Alu | [87] | |
| Children from USA (n = 336) | Cord blood | + | IRAK4, ESM1, BRCA1, LASP1, IFT140 | [88] | |
| Mother-newborn pairs from China (n = 119) | Placenta | – | LINE1 | [89] | |
| Mother-newborn pairs from China (n = 220) | – | IGF2 | [90] | ||
| Mother-newborn pairs from USA (n = 179) | – | IGF2 | [91] | ||
| Bisphenol A | Preadolescent girls from Egypt (n = 60) | Buccal cells | – | X chromosome | [92] |
| Mother-newborn pairs from USA (n = 81) | Cord blood | + | BDNF | [93] | |
| Fetuses from USA (n = 12) | Placenta | +/– | LINE1 | [94] | |
+ Increased methylation. – Decreased methylation. aOnly in GSTM1 (Glutathione-S-transferase type M1)-present children. bMethylation changes were reverted over time. cAt birth. dLow level of exposure to DDTs plus PBDEs, at birth. eHigh level of exposure to DDTs plus PBDEs at birth. LINE1 (Long interspersed nuclear element 1). AluYb8 (Alu element members of the Yb8 family). AXL (AXL receptor tyrosine kinase). PTPRO (Protein tyrosine phosphatase, receptor type O). SAT2 (Spermidine/spermine N1-acetyltransferase family member 2). GFI1 (Growth factor independent 1 transcriptional repressor). ATP9 A (ATPase phospholipid transporting 9 A (putative)). AHRR (Aryl-hydrocarbon receptor repressor). CYP1 A1 (Cytochrome P450 family 1 subfamily A member 1). CNTNAP2 (Contactin Associated Protein-Like 2. KLF13 (Kruppel like factor 13). MYO1G (Myosin 1G). TNFα (Tumor necrosis factor alpha). IRAK4 (interleukin-1 receptor-associated kinase 4); ESM1 (endothelial cell-specific molecule 1). BRCA1 (breast cancer 1). LASP1 (LIM and SH3 Protein 1). IFT140 (Intraflagellar Transport 140). IGF2 (Insulin-like growth factor 2). BDNF (Brain-derived neurotrophic factor). PBDE (Polybrominated diphenyl ethers). DDT (Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane). DDE (Dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene).