Table 3.

Factors associated with continuous use of opioids before TJR.

Covariates	ORa (95% CI), continuous vs never use of opioids
	Total cohort	THR cohort	TKR cohort
Index TJR
TKR vs THR	0.73 (0.71, 0.76)	-	-
Demographics
Index year
2010 vs 2014	1.62 (1.19, 2.20)	1.59 (0.94, 2.67)	1.65 (1.13, 2.42)
2011 vs 2014	1.38 (1.33, 1.44)	1.36 (1.26, 1.47)	1.40 (1.32, 1.47)
2012 vs 2014	1.35 (1.30, 1.41)	1.38 (1.28, 1.48)	1.34 (1.27, 1.41)
2013 vs 2014	1.10 (1.06, 1.15)	1.12 (1.04, 1.19)	1.10 (1.04, 1.15)
Age	0.97 (0.97, 0.97)	0.97 (0.97, 0.98)	0.97 (0.96, 0.97)
Gender
Female vs male	1.10 (1.06, 1.14)	1.17 (1.10, 1.24)	1.06 (1.02, 1.11)
Race
African American vs White	2.14 (2.01,2.28)	2.41 (2.14, 2.72)	2.05 (1.90, 2.21)
Othersb vs White	0.52 (0.48, 0.57)	0.59 (0.49, 0.71)	0.52 (0.47, 0.57)
Region
West vs NorthEast	1.98 (1.88, 2.08)	1.87 (1.72, 2.04)	2.05 (1.92, 2.19)
South vs NorthEast	1.89 (1.80, 1.98)	1.82 (1.69, 1.96)	1.95 (1.84, 2.06)
MidWest vs NorthEast	1.51 (1.43, 1.58)	1.52 (1.40, 1.64)	1.50 (1.41, 1.59)
Others vs NorthEast	0.30 (0.17, 0.52)	0.54 (0.23, 1.27)	0.20 (0.09, 0.44)
Pain-related conditions
Falls	1.12 (1.06, 1.19)	1.00 (0.91, 1.11)	1.31 (1.21, 1.41)
Migraine	0.83 (0.79, 0.87)	0.73 (0.66, 0.80)	0.88 (0.83, 0.94)
Neuropathy	1.30 (1.26, 1.35)	1.41 (1.33, 1.49)	1.25 (1.20, 1.30)
Back pain	2.32 (2.24, 2.39)	2.23 (2.10, 2.37)	2.34 (2.25, 2.43)
Hip fracture	0.63 (0.54, 0.75)	0.65 (0.53, 0.80)	0.86 (0.63, 1.16)
Other fracture	1.32 (1.25, 1.39)	1.04 (0.96, 1.13)	1.75 (1.63, 1.88)
Other comorbidities
Combined comorbidity scorec	0.98 (0.97, 0.99)	0.98 (0.97, 1.00)	0.99 (0.98, 1.00)
Hyperlipidemia	0.60 (0.58, 0.62)	0.59 (0.56, 0.63)	0.60 (0.57, 0.62)
Hypertension	1.12 (1.07, 1.18)	1.21 (1.12, 1.31)	1.08 (1.02, 1.15)
Atrial fibrillation	0.80 (0.77, 0.84)	0.82 (0.75, 0.88)	0.79 (0.74, 0.83)
Heart failure	1.06 (1.00, 1.12)	1.04 (0.95, 1.14)	1.07 (1.00, 1.14)
Coronary heart disease	0.91 (0.86, 0.95)	0.91 (0.83, 1.00)	0.90 (0.84, 0.96)
Stroke	0.76 (0.72, 0.80)	0.72 (0.67, 0.78)	0.78 (0.73, 0.82)
Malignancy	0.82 (0.79, 0.85)	0.81 (0.76, 0.87)	0.82 (0.78, 0.86)
Diabetes	0.74 (0.72, 0.77)	0.75 (0.70, 0.80)	0.74 (0.71,0.78)
Obesity	1.09 (1.04, 1.13)	1.21 (1.12, 1.31)	1.04 (0.99, 1.09)
Chronic kidney disease	1.20 (1.14, 1.26)	1.09 (0.99, 1.19)	1.25 (1.18, 1.34)
Tobacco	1.65 (1.58, 1.71)	1.68 (1.57, 1.80)	1.64 (1.56, 1.72)
Drug abuse	5.18 (3.95, 6.79)	3.89 (2.56, 5.93)	6.72 (4.68, 9.66)
Osteoporosis	1.04 (1.00, 1.08)	1.04 (0.97, 1.12)	1.04 (0.99, 1.09)
Psychosis	0.75 (0.68, 0.84)	0.74 (0.62, 0.88)	0.79 (0.69, 0.92)
Depression	1.14 (1.09, 1.19)	1.07 (1.00, 1.16)	1.16 (1.11, 1.23)
Sleep disorder	0.90 (0.87, 0.94)	0.90 (0.84, 0.97)	0.90 (0.86, 0.94)
Anxiety	1.13 (1.08, 1.18)	1.09 (1.01, 1.18)	1.16 (1.10, 1.22)
Medication use
Non-selective NSAIDs	1.09 (1.05, 1.12)	1.06 (1.00, 1.12)	1.09 (1.05, 1.13)
COXIBs	1.01 (0.97, 1.06)	1.01 (0.93, 1.10)	1.01 (0.95, 1.07)
Corticosteroids	0.70 (0.68, 0.73)	0.67 (0.63, 0.71)	0.72 (0.69, 0.75)
Anticonvulsants	2.11 (2.03, 2.18)	2.16 (2.03, 2.29)	2.08 (1.99, 2.17)
Antidepressants	1.40 (1.35, 1.45)	1.42 (1.33, 1.51)	1.39 (1.33, 1.45)
Antipsychotics	0.64 (0.58, 0.70)	0.48 (0.41,0.57)	0.75 (0.67, 0.83)
Benzodiazepines	1.68 (1.60, 1.76)	1.55 (1.42, 1.68)	1.75 (1.65, 1.85)
Other anxiolytics	1.44 (1.38, 1.50)	1.35 (1.25, 1.45)	1.50 (1.42, 1.57)
Healthcare utilization
No. of unique prescriptions	0.99 (0.99, 1.00)	1.00 (0.99, 1.00)	0.99 (0.99, 0.99)
No. of physician visits	1.13 (1.11, 1.15)	1.09 (1.06, 1.13)	1.17 (1.14, 1.19)
No. of emergency room visits	1.25 (1.24, 1.25)	1.28 (1.27, 1.29)	1.23 (1.23, 1.24)

Abbreviations: NSAIDs non-steroid anti-inflammatory drugs; COXIBs cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors

^aAdjusted for all the covariates in this table.

^bIncluding Hispanic and other race/ethnics

^cA combined comorbidity score ranges from −2 to 26, taking into account of 20 common individual conditions.