FIG. 4.

Effects of biomechanical forces on mitochondria. Biomechanical forces exert effects on the mitochondria at multiple levels. All of the ETCs can be regulated by biomechanical forces altering both mitochondrial function and ROS generation (A). Mitochondrial biogenesis (B) is regulated by PGC-1α via the transcription factors NRF1 and TFAM. Mitochondrial network dynamics (C) are regulated by the opposing effects of fission and fusion. Fission mediated by Drp1 guided by MFF, Fis1, MiD49, and MiD51. Fusion is mediated by mitofusins in the outer membrane and Opa1 in the inner membrane. Drp1, dynamin-related protein 1; ETCs, electron transport complexes; NRF, nuclear respiratory factor; PGC-1α, peroxisome proliferation and the activated receptor gamma coactivator-1α; TFAM, transcription factor A mitochondrial. Color images are available online.