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. 2019 Sep 19;9:13597. doi: 10.1038/s41598-019-49506-1

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© The Author(s) 2019

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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t-SNE embedding of the high-dimensional face manifold. (a) The t-SNE embedding in two dimensions was generated with randomly sampled non-patient faces, for visualisation purposes, and labelled according to non-patient (blue, n = 500), preoperative patient (red, n = 119), and postoperative patient (green, n = 127) faces. Lateral views of (b) a patient and (c,d) two close volunteer neighbours to illustrate shape similarity within the t-SNE embedding, particularly in the upper lip angle. (e,f) Faces corresponding to false negatives in the classification experiment.