TABLE 4.

Commonly referenced theories relating to interest in the biology education literature

Number of papers citing	Name of theory	Foundational publication	Description of the theory and role of interest
23	The four-phase model of interest development	Hidi, S., and Renninger, K. A. (2006). The four-phase model of interest development. Educational Psychologist, 41(2), 111–127. doi:10.1207/s15326985ep4102_4	The four-phase model describes how interest develops in an individual over time. The four phases are 1) triggered situational interest, 2) maintained situational interest, 3) emerging individual interest, and 4) well-developed individual interest. In phases 1 and 2, interest is a psychological state that results from short-term changes in cognitive and affective processing associated with a particular class of content. In the later phases, interest is both a psychological state and a relatively enduring predisposition to reengage a particular class of content over time.
20	Person–object approach to interest	Krapp, A. (1993). Characteristics of individual interests and interest-related actions from the perspective of a person–object theory. Studies in Educational Psychology, 4(January), 297–329. doi:10.17559/TV-20150807194942	The person–object approach to interest is a theoretical framework that describes interest as a specific relationship between a person and an object. According to this framework, interest can be investigated at the level of a person’s experience and behavior related to the object of interest (action of interest) and at the level of habitual or dispositional factors of personality associated with the object of interest (personal interests).
17	Self-determination theory	Ryan, R. M., and Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68	Self-determination theory is a theory of motivation that defines intrinsic and varied extrinsic sources of motivation. Competence, relatedness, and autonomy are argued to be three components that are essential for facilitating an individual’s optimal growth and social integration, as well as for constructive social development and personal well-being. Interest is a form of “intrinsic motivation” which is key to a subtheory of self-­determination theory, called cognitive evaluation theory. Cognitive evaluation theory is based on the idea that people are intrinsically motivated only for activities that hold intrinsic interest for them, activities that have the appeal of novelty, challenge, and aesthetic value.
13	Valence beliefs	Schiefele, U. (1991). Interest, learning, and motivation. Educational Psychologist, 26(3–4), 299–323. doi:10.1080/00461520.1991.9653136	Valence beliefs describe interest as a multidimensional construct that is specific to the content. As described in Table 3, “individual interest is interpreted here as the relatively long-term orientation of an individual toward a type of object, an activity, or an area of knowledge.” It consists of three valences: 1) a feeling-related valence, which refers to the feelings that are associated with a topic or an object, 2) a value-related valence, which refers to the attribution of personal significance to an object, and 3) intrinsic character, which means that the person is involved in a topic for its own sake and not for any external reason.
8	Expectancy-value theory	Wigfield, A., and Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–value theory of achievement motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 68–81. doi:10.1006/ceps.1999.1015	Expectancy-value theory is a theory of achievement motivation that seeks to explain people’s choice to engage in tasks, persistence on those tasks, vigor in carrying them out, and performance on them. The essential components of the theory are expectancies for success and values. Expectancies for success are the individual’s belief that he or she can accomplish a task. There are four major dimensions of value: 1) attainment value—the importance of doing well on a given task, 2) intrinsic value—the enjoyment one gains from doing the task, 3) utility value—how a task fits into an individual’s future plans, and 4) costs—the perceived drawbacks of engaging in a task (e.g., effort, limiting engagement in other activities, and emotional toll). In this theory, intrinsic value is synonymous with interest and concerns doing a task out of enjoyment.
2	Flow theory	Davis, M. S., and Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1977). Beyond boredom and anxiety: The experience of play in work and games. Contemporary Sociology, 6(2), 197. doi:10.2307/2065805	A flow experience occurs during situations in which people are willing to invest psychic energy in tasks for which extrinsic rewards are absent. Flow is described as a state of mind that is spontaneous, almost automatic, like the flow of a strong current. Intrinsic motivation (the interest component of this theory, which is described as a state that combines positive affective and cognitive qualities) is the main incentive for pursuing an activity and, as such, interest must be present for a flow experience to occur. Like intrinsic motivation, a flow experience requires no external rewards.
2	John Dewey’s view on interest in education	Dewey, J. (1913). Interest and effort in education. Whitefish, MT: Kessinger Publishing. doi:10.1037/14633-000	Dewey’s theory of interest explains how interest might manifest itself and interact in an educational environment. According to Dewey, interest can be three things. First, interest can be an action or propulsion toward engagement with content. For example, an individual can take an interest in something. To be interested in any matter is to be actively concerned with it. Second, interest is objective. Interests are things that an individual looks after. We identify interests with concerns or affairs. Third, interest is personal; it signifies a direct concern; a recognition of something at stake, something whose outcome is important for the individual. It has its emotional as well as its active and objective sides. Securing interest in facts or ideas is essential for students to direct their energies toward mastering those facts or ideas.