TABLE 5.

Linear regression model with coefficients of the regression model represented in terms of raw points ± SE out of 100 points^a

Regression coefficients	Estimate ± SE	p value
Model intercept	37.03 ± 4.07
Student achievement
SAT Math score	0.054 ± 0.008	<0.001
College level (Reference level: Freshmen)
Senior	8.73 ± 2.26	0.003
Junior	4.81 ± 1.62	0.002
Sophomore	−0.25 ± 1.46	0.862
Race/ethnicity (Reference level: Hispanic)
Black	−4.91 ± 2.13	0.021
White	−0.96 ± 2.66	0.72
Course format (Reference level: Hybrid)
Traditional lecture	−14.85 ± 1.46	<0.001
Online	−9.53 ± 1.95	<0.001
Course format*Race/ethnicity (Reference level: Hybrid*Hispanic)
Lecture*Black	0.45 ± 3.59	0.901
Online*Black	−3.87 ± 3.94	0.325
Lecture*white	−1.10 ± 4.37	0.817
Online*white	15.15 ± 4.78	0.002

^aThe categorical variable “college level” represents achievement by college level relative to the achievement of students at the freshman college level for students in all three course formats. The sex category represents the gains of male students in all three course formats relative to female students. The race/ethnicity category represents the performance by racial group relative to the performance of Hispanic students. After we controlled for college level, sex, and race/ethnicity, the coefficients of the regression model indicate that students in the hybrid format outperform students in either online or face-to-face format. The complete model explains more than a third of the variation in student achievement (R² = 0.387, F(12, 397) = 20.87, p < 0.001).