TABLE 3. Factors associated with prescription opioid use, based on separate multivariable logistic regression models* for the total study population and systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) patients only — Michigan Lupus Epidemiology and Surveillance (MILES) Program, 2014–2015.
Characteristic | Total study population (n = 654) |
SLE patients only (n = 462) |
||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Prescription opioid use prevalence | OR (95% CI) | p-value | Prescription opioid use prevalence | OR (95% CI) | p-value | |
Patient status
| ||||||
Nonpatient |
7.8% |
referent |
NA |
NA |
NA |
NA |
SLE |
31.0% |
3.36 (1.72–6.57) |
<0.001 |
NA |
NA |
NA |
Age (yrs)
|
NA |
1.00 (0.98–1.02) |
NS |
NA |
0.99 (0.96–1.01) |
NS |
Sex
| ||||||
Male |
15.7% |
referent |
NA |
25.0% |
referent |
NA |
Female |
25.2% |
0.80 (0.35–1.86) |
NS |
31.4% |
0.78 (0.28–2.17) |
NS |
Race
| ||||||
White |
19.1% |
referent |
NA |
25.3% |
NA |
NA |
Black |
29.5% |
1.01 (0.62–1.66) |
NS |
36.5% |
1.03 (0.60–1.76) |
NS |
Other/Unknown |
31.0% |
1.14 (0.35–3.70) |
NS |
38.1% |
1.10 (0.30–4.07) |
NS |
Income
| ||||||
>U.S. median |
14.6% |
referent |
NA |
18.7% |
referent |
NA |
≤U.S. median |
31.1% |
1.21 (0.68–2.14) |
NS |
40.5% |
1.14 (0.62–2.11) |
NS |
Education (yrs)
|
NA |
0.93 (0.84–1.02) |
NS |
NA |
0.92 (0.83–1.02) |
NS |
Employment
| ||||||
Employed and/or in school |
16.1% |
referent |
NA |
21.7% |
referent |
NA |
Unemployed |
39.0% |
1.32 (0.82–2.11) |
NS |
46.0% |
1.21 (0.72–2.03) |
NS |
Insurance
| ||||||
Private |
13.3% |
referent |
NA |
18.0% |
referent |
NA |
Medicaid/Medicare |
34.9% |
1.45 (0.82–2.56) |
NS |
42.7% |
1.60 (0.85–3.00) |
NS |
None |
5.9% |
0.39 (0.03–4.27) |
NS |
10.0% |
0.43 (0.04–4.79) |
NS |
Patient-reported outcomes
| ||||||
Emergency department use
| ||||||
No visits |
13.4% |
referent |
NA |
18.3% |
referent |
NA |
≥1 visit last 12 mos |
39.0% |
2.22 (1.39–3.55) |
0.001 |
45.1% |
2.14 (1.27–3.59) |
0.004 |
Fibromyalgia
| ||||||
No |
13.4% |
referent |
NA |
19.9% |
referent |
NA |
Yes |
46.1% |
1.50 (0.89–2.54) |
NS |
46.8% |
1.18 (0.64–2.16) |
NS |
Pain score
†,§
|
NA |
1.35 (1.19–1.53) |
<0.001 |
NA |
1.36 (1.18–1.58) |
<0.001 |
Physical function score†,§
|
NA |
1.11 (1.00–1.24) |
0.047 |
NA |
1.13 (1.00–1.27) |
0.042 |
Depression score§
|
NA |
1.01 (0.97–1.05) |
NS |
NA |
1.01 (0.97–1.05) |
NS |
Anxiety score§
|
NA |
0.97 (0.94–1.01) |
NS |
NA |
0.98 (0.94–1.02) |
NS |
SLE-specific measures
| ||||||
SLE duration (years) |
NA |
NA |
NA |
NA |
1.02 (0.99–1.05) |
NS |
Activity (SLAQ score) § |
NA |
NA |
NA |
NA |
1.01 (0.96–1.06) |
NS |
Damage (LDIQ score) § | NA | NA | NA | NA | 0.98 (0.92–1.05) | NS |
Abbreviations: CI = confidence interval; LDIQ = lupus damage index questionnaire; NA = not applicable; NS = not significant; OR = odds ratio; SLAQ = systemic lupus activity questionnaire; SLE = systemic lupus erythematosus.
* Each multivariable model includes all listed factors (i.e., odds ratios are adjusted for all other variables listed in the table): SLE versus nonpatient status (for total population model), age, sex, race, income, education, employment, health insurance, emergency department use, fibromyalgia, pain score, physical function score, depression score, and anxiety score. The SLE patient only model also included SLE duration, SLE activity score, and SLE damage score.
† For both the pain and physical function measures, scores were reversed from their original RAND Medical Outcomes Study 36-item Short-Form-Survey instrument values so that higher scores represent worse pain and physical functioning, respectively. For the regression models, the (reversed) pain and physical function scores were scaled by their standard deviations of 10; therefore, each unit change represents one standard deviation change.
§ Higher score is worse.