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. 2019 Sep 27;68(38):819–824. doi: 10.15585/mmwr.mm6838a2

TABLE 3. Factors associated with prescription opioid use, based on separate multivariable logistic regression models* for the total study population and systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) patients only — Michigan Lupus Epidemiology and Surveillance (MILES) Program, 2014–2015.

Characteristic Total study population (n = 654)
SLE patients only (n = 462)
Prescription opioid use prevalence OR (95% CI) p-value Prescription opioid use prevalence OR (95% CI) p-value
Patient status
Nonpatient
7.8%
referent
NA
NA
NA
NA
SLE
31.0%
3.36 (1.72–6.57)
<0.001
NA
NA
NA
Age (yrs)
NA
1.00 (0.98–1.02)
NS
NA
0.99 (0.96–1.01)
NS
Sex
Male
15.7%
referent
NA
25.0%
referent
NA
Female
25.2%
0.80 (0.35–1.86)
NS
31.4%
0.78 (0.28–2.17)
NS
Race
White
19.1%
referent
NA
25.3%
NA
NA
Black
29.5%
1.01 (0.62–1.66)
NS
36.5%
1.03 (0.60–1.76)
NS
Other/Unknown
31.0%
1.14 (0.35–3.70)
NS
38.1%
1.10 (0.30–4.07)
NS
Income
>U.S. median
14.6%
referent
NA
18.7%
referent
NA
≤U.S. median
31.1%
1.21 (0.68–2.14)
NS
40.5%
1.14 (0.62–2.11)
NS
Education (yrs)
NA
0.93 (0.84–1.02)
NS
NA
0.92 (0.83–1.02)
NS
Employment
Employed and/or in school
16.1%
referent
NA
21.7%
referent
NA
Unemployed
39.0%
1.32 (0.82–2.11)
NS
46.0%
1.21 (0.72–2.03)
NS
Insurance
Private
13.3%
referent
NA
18.0%
referent
NA
Medicaid/Medicare
34.9%
1.45 (0.82–2.56)
NS
42.7%
1.60 (0.85–3.00)
NS
None
5.9%
0.39 (0.03–4.27)
NS
10.0%
0.43 (0.04–4.79)
NS
Patient-reported outcomes
Emergency department use
No visits
13.4%
referent
NA
18.3%
referent
NA
≥1 visit last 12 mos
39.0%
2.22 (1.39–3.55)
0.001
45.1%
2.14 (1.27–3.59)
0.004
Fibromyalgia
No
13.4%
referent
NA
19.9%
referent
NA
Yes
46.1%
1.50 (0.89–2.54)
NS
46.8%
1.18 (0.64–2.16)
NS
Pain score †,§
NA
1.35 (1.19–1.53)
<0.001
NA
1.36 (1.18–1.58)
<0.001
Physical function score†,§
NA
1.11 (1.00–1.24)
0.047
NA
1.13 (1.00–1.27)
0.042
Depression score§
NA
1.01 (0.97–1.05)
NS
NA
1.01 (0.97–1.05)
NS
Anxiety score§
NA
0.97 (0.94–1.01)
NS
NA
0.98 (0.94–1.02)
NS
SLE-specific measures
SLE duration (years)
NA
NA
NA
NA
1.02 (0.99–1.05)
NS
Activity (SLAQ score) §
NA
NA
NA
NA
1.01 (0.96–1.06)
NS
Damage (LDIQ score) § NA NA NA NA 0.98 (0.92–1.05) NS

Abbreviations: CI = confidence interval; LDIQ = lupus damage index questionnaire; NA = not applicable; NS = not significant; OR = odds ratio; SLAQ = systemic lupus activity questionnaire; SLE = systemic lupus erythematosus.

* Each multivariable model includes all listed factors (i.e., odds ratios are adjusted for all other variables listed in the table): SLE versus nonpatient status (for total population model), age, sex, race, income, education, employment, health insurance, emergency department use, fibromyalgia, pain score, physical function score, depression score, and anxiety score. The SLE patient only model also included SLE duration, SLE activity score, and SLE damage score.

For both the pain and physical function measures, scores were reversed from their original RAND Medical Outcomes Study 36-item Short-Form-Survey instrument values so that higher scores represent worse pain and physical functioning, respectively. For the regression models, the (reversed) pain and physical function scores were scaled by their standard deviations of 10; therefore, each unit change represents one standard deviation change.

§ Higher score is worse.