Table 1.

Anti-obesity functions of bitter gourd (M. charantia) crude extract.

Function	Downregulation	Upregulation	References
Inhibition of fat synthesis	pAkt, tAkt	pAMPK, tAMPK	[71]
		adiponectin	[72]
	PPARγ, adiponectin		[73]
	leptin	GLUT-4	[74]
Promotion of glucose utilization	insulin resistance		[75]
		PPARδ	[76]
		GLUT-4	[77]
		glucose utilization	[78]
		AMPK	[79]
	fasting plasma glucose		[80]
Auxiliary lipid-lowering activity	cholesterol, TG		[81]
	TG		[82]
	cholesterol, TG	HDL	[83]
	TG	insulin sensitivity	[84]
	TG	HDL	[85]
		HDL	[86]
	cholesterol, TG		[87]
	TC, TG		[88]

TG: triglyceride; TC: total cholesterol; HDL: high-density lipoprotein; AMPK: adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase; GLUT-4: glucose transporter 4; PPAR: Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor; Akt: Protein kinase B.