Figure 1.

Oxidative stress induces HK-2 cell damage and mitochondrial dysfunction in a time- and dose-dependent manner. (a–c) Cell viability was measured in HK-2 cells treated with increasing doses of hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) for different time periods. (d) Cell apoptosis was determined by flow cytometric analysis with annexin-V/PI double-staining. (e) The level of cellular ROS concentration was measured via DCFHDA fluorescence by flow cytometry. (f) A luminescence assay was used to measure the cellular ATP levels. Data are presented as the mean ± SD (n = 3). ^∗P < 0.05 and ^∗∗∗P < 0.001 vs. control.