Table 1.
Research and ethnopharmacological studies from different countries for the treatment of snake envenomation.
| Country | Plant | Description of the Study | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|
| India | Morus alba (Moraceae) | Extracts from Morus alba (Moraceae) are active against Daboia russelli venom, inhibiting the caseinolytic, hyaluronolytic, edematogenic, hemorrhagic, and procoagulant activities. | [47] |
| Nigeria | Mucuna pruriens (Fabaceae) | Seed extract of Mucuna pruriens (Fabaceae) used in Nigerian communities offer significant protection to cardiac muscle tissue and blood vessels, and even protects against the lethality produced by venoms from Naja kaouthia, Naja nivea, and Calloselasma rhodostoma. This protection can be explained from the presence of a Kunitz-type trypsin inhibitor. | [48,49,50] |
| Yemen | Hibiscus aethiopicus (Malvaceae) | Aqueous crude extracts from Hibiscus aethiopicus (Malvaceae) possess significant anti-hemorrhagic and cytoprotective activities against Echis ocellatus and Naja n. nigricollis venoms | [51] |
| India | Vitis vinifera (Vitaceae) | Administration of the methanolic extracts from Vitis vinifera (Vitaceae) resulted in the reduction of local symptoms produced by D. russelli venom due to the inhibition of the proteolytic and hyaluronidase activities reducing edema, myonecrosis, and hemorrhaging. | [52] |
| Brazil | Dipteryx alata (Fabaceae) | Extracts and fractions from Dipteryx alata (Fabaceae) partially neutralized Bothrops jararacussu and Crotalus durissus terrificus venom activities. Hydroalcoholic bark extract from D. alata is active against B. jararacussu venom. | [53,54] |
| Brazil | Marsypianthes chamaedrys (Lamiaceae) | Infusions and crushed leaves from Marsypianthes chamaedrys (Lamiaceae) showed a similar activity produced by antivenom serum against clotting and inflammatory effects of the Bothrops atrox venom | [55] |
| Brazil | Hypericum brasiliense (Guttiferae) | Hypericum brasiliense (Guttiferae) reduces the lethality produced by Bothrops jararaca by inhibiting the edematous and proteolytic activities of the venom. | [56] |
| India | Luffa egyptiaca (Cucurbitaceae) and Nicotiana rustica (Solanaceae) | Ethyl acetate fractions of Luffa egyptiaca (Cucurbitaceae) and Nicotiana rustica (Solanaceae) extracts completely inhibited the protease activity of Naja nigricollis venom. | [57] |
| India | Mangifera indica (Anacardiaceae) | Aqueous extracts from the stem bark of Mangifera indica (Anacardiaceae) inhibited the protease, hyaluronidase, hemorrhagic, fibrinogenolytic, hemolytic, procoagulant, edema, ATPase, and alkaline phosphatase activities produced by D. russelli venom | [58] |
| Argentina | Nectandra angustifolia (Lauraceae) | Ethanolic extracts and essential oils from Nectandra angustifolia (Lauraceae) leaves inhibited the hemolytic and coagulant effects produced by Bothrops neuwiedi venom | [59] |
| Pakistan | Fagonia cretica (Zygophyllaceae) | Methanolic extract from leaves and twigs of Fagonia cretica (Zygophyllaceae) is capable of inhibiting hemorrhage induced by Naja naja karachiensis venom | [60] |
| Brazil | Sapindus saponaria (Sapindaceae) | Fractions of the hydro alcoholic extracts from the callus of Sapindus saponaria (Sapindaceae) partially inhibited the lethality, phospholipase, clotting, edema, hemorrhagic, and myotoxic activities produced by Bothrops jararacussu, Bothrops moojeni, Bothrops alternates, and Crotalus durissus terrificus venoms along with isolated myotoxins and phospholipase A2 (PLA2) | [61] |
| Brazil | Mouriri pusa (Melastomataceae), Byrsonima crassa (Malpighiaceae), and Davilla elliptica (Dilleniaceae) | Methanolic extracts from Mouriri pusa (Melastomataceae), Byrsonima crassa (Malpighiaceae), and Davilla elliptica (Dilleniaceae) blocked local hemorrhages produced by Bothrops jararaca venom. | [62] |
| India | Anacardium occidentale | The efficacy of Anacardium occidentale extract against pharmacological actions induced by Vipera russelli venom was observed from the neutralization of phospholipases, proteases, and hyaluronidases, as well as edema, hemorrhage, lethality, and myonecrosis effects | [63] |
| India | Tamarindus indica (Fabaceae) | Tamarindus indica (Fabaceae) inhibited hyaluronidase, Phospholipase A2 (PLA2), l-amino oxidase (LAAO), and 5′-nucleotidase. Exhibited fibrinogenolytic, edema-inducing, hemorrhagic, indirect hemolytic, coagulant, and myotoxic properties, and protected against venom-toxicity | [64] |
| Brazil | 83 plant species, from 34 families | Inhibition of Phospholipase A2 (PLA2), anti edema, anti lethality, anti clotting, myotoxicity, and antihaemorrhagic activity | [65] |
| Brazil | Mandevilla velutina and Eclipta prostata | Inhibition of creatine kinase release and myotoxic activity | [66] |
| Worldwide | Schumanniophyton magnificum, Aristolochia radix, Diospyros kaki, Alocasia cucullata, Picrasma quassioides, Eclipta prostrata, Curcuma sp., Soja hispida, Diodia scandens, Andrographis paniculata | Inhibition of Phospholipase A2 (PLA2) or other enzymes (Adenosine triphosphatese), and life-prolongation effect post black mamba venom treatment. | [67] |
| Colombia | 77 plant species | Three relevant studies: First study was an inventory with 77 species of plants belonging to 41 families used by Colombian healers along with the methods of preparation, administration, and dosage; second study was a list of 74 ethanolic plant extracts used by folk medicinethat were active against lethal effects produced by Bothrops atrox venom; third study showed 31 extracts with moderate or high neutralizing abilities against the hemorrhagic effect of B. atrox venom | [68] |
| Brazil | Numerous plant species | Review discussing Brazilian plant species displaying neutralizing properties against snake envenomation from an ethnopharmacological perspective | [69] |
| Costa Rica | 40 plant species | 40 plant species belonging to at least 30 families. Neutralization activity of Costa Rican plants towards B. asper venom and toxins | [70] |
| India | 34 plant species | A list of 34 plant species belonging to the Zingiberaceae family traditionally used in Northeast India, where one species presented antivenom activity and five other species have been scientifically validated to be anti-inflammatory | [71] |
| Nepal, China, South Africa, Nicaragua, and Brazil | 310 plant genera from 171 families | Enzyme inhibition activity | [72] |
| India | 69 plant species | 69 plant species belonging to 29 genera and 17 compounds with antiophidian activity or relative properties against venoms from 34 snake species | [73] |
| Nigeria and Ghana | Schumanniophyton magnificum, Strophanthus gratus, Strophanthus hispidus, Mucuna pruriens | Aqueous extracts showed effects on the blood clotting against Echis carinatus envenomation | [74] |
| Mali, DR Congo, South Africa | 94 species of 84 genera | List of plants used traditionally in sub-Saharan Africa. Hyaluronidase, phospholipase A2, and protease inhibitory activity against effects produced by Bitis arietans, and Naja nigricollis venom | [75] |