Table 2.

List of isolated bioactive compounds with venom neutralization capabilities and their mechanisms of action.

Compound	Source	Mechanism of Action	Mode of Administration/Study Level	Reference
Aristolochic acids	Aristolochia indica Aristolochia sp. Aristolochia odoratissima Aristolochia fordiana Aristolochia radix	Induction of PLA2 Inhibition of L-amino acid oxidase Anti-lethality	Injected into the mouse foot pad	[96,97,98,99,118,119,120,121]
Rosmarinic acid	Cordia verbenacea Argusia argentea	Inhibition of myotoxic activity and PLA2 Anti-hemorrhagic activity	Injected intramuscularly into the right gastrocnemius muscle of mice In vivo study	[122,123,124,125]
Quercetin-3-O-α-L-rhamnopyranoside quinic acid, gallic acid, quercetin, kaempferol, luteolin, ellagic acid, chlorogenic acid	Euphorbia hirta	Inhibition of PLA2	In vitro study	[105,126]
Pinostrobin	Renealmia alpinia	Inhibition of myotoxic activity and PLA2	Intramuscular injection (inhibition of myotoxic activity) and subcutaneous injection (inhibition of edema-inducing activity)	[81]
Undisclosed	Azadirachta indica	Inhibition of PLA2	In vitro study	[127]
2-hydroxy-4-methoxy benzoic acid	Hemidesmus indicus	Neutralization of venom hemorrhagic activity	Injected intradermally into mice	[128]
β-sitosterol	Eclipta prostrata, Humirianthera ampla Cynanchum paniculatum	Neutralization of enzymes	In vitro and in vivo studies	[129,130,131]
8-methoxy coumestrol	Medicago sativa	Inhibition of edema, hemorrhage, and cardio toxicity	Injected intravenously into mice	[132]
7α-hydroxy-3,13-clerodadiene-16,15:18,19-diolides	Baccharis trimera	Inhibition of metalloproteases	In vitro and in vivo studies	[133]
CAS # 1260387-36-7 CAS # 2242794-02-9	Clematis gouriana	Inhibition of PLA2	In vitro and computational studies	[111]
Linearol Isolinearol CAS # 88452-92-0	Canistrocarpus cervicornis	Inhibition of induced hemorrhage, hemolysis, and coagulation	Biological assays	[110,114]
Ellagic acid	Casearia silvestris	Anti-myotoxic and anti-edema	In vivo study	[134,135]
Resveratrol	Crinum jagus	Neutralization of PLA2, protease, hyaluronidase, L-amino acid oxidase, and 5′-nucleotidase enzyme activities. Anti-myonecrosis and anti-hemorrhagic	Oral and intraperitoneal administration. In vivo study	[136,137]
Campesterol, β-sitosterol (its glycoside), stigmasterol, catechin, and gallocatechin	Croton urucurana	Anti-hemorrhagic and anti-lethality	In vivo study	[138]
Rosmarinic acid α-Humulene (−)-trans-Caryophyllene α-Pinene and alloaromadendrene	Cordia verbenacea	Anti-inflammatory, anti-myotoxic, anti-edematogenic, and anti-PLA2 activity. Anti-edematogenic and reduction of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNFα) Reduction of platelet activating factor, bradykinin, and anti-edematogenic. Anti-inflammatory and anti-edematogenic	In vivo study	[87,122,139,140]
Fucoidan	Fucus vesiculosus	Anti-myotoxic activity, anti-PLA2, and anti-necrosis	In vivo study	[141]
Wedelolactone	Eclipta alba	Anti-hepatotoxic, anti-hypertensive, anti-tumor, anti-PLA2, anti-snake venom, and anti-myotoxic-induced PLA2.	In vivo study	[142,143,144]
Wedelolactone, sitosterol, and stigmasterol	Eclipta prostrata	Anti-neurotoxic and anti-myotoxic	In vivo study	[145]
2-hydroxy-4-methoxy-benzoic acid and lupeol acetate	Hemidesmus indicus	Anti-defibrinogenatic, anti-edematogenic, anti-PLA2 activity, anti-necrotic, anti-hemorrhagic, anti-coagulant, lipid peroxidase inhibition, superoxide dismutase activity, antiserum action potentiation, anti-lethality, anti-cardiotoxic, and anti-neurotoxic	In vivo study	[78,79,128,146]
Pentagalloyl glucopyranose	Mangifera indica	Anti-hemorrhagic, anti-dermonecrotic, and enzymatic activities. Inhibition of protease, hyalunoridase, fibrinogenolytic, procoagulant, anti-edematogenic, anti-ATPase, and alkaline phosphatase	In vivo study	[60,83]
Gallic acid	Musa paradisiaca	Anti-PLA2, anti-myotoxic, anti-hemorrhagic, and anti-lethality	In vivo study	[109,147]
Alternamin	Murraya alternans	Anti-hemorrhagic	In vivo study	[148]
Macrolobins A and B	Pentaclethra macroloba	Anti-proteolytic and anti-hemorrhagic, metalloprotease inhibitors	In vitro and in vivo studies	[112]
4-Nerolidyl-catechol	Piper umbellatum and Piper peltatum	Anti-myotoxic, anti-PLA2, anti-serineprotease, and anti-edematogenic	In vivo study	[42]
Solanidane	Solanum campaniforme	Hemorrhagic inhibitor, necrotizing, and myotoxicity effects	In vivo study	[149]
12-methoxy-4-methyl-voachalotine	Tabernaemontana catharinensis	Inhibited lethality	In vivo study	[116,117]
Whitania Somnifera Glycoprotein (WSG)	Withania somnifera	Anti-edematogenic	In vivo study	[150]
β-sitosterol, quercetin-3-O-glucopyranoside, and kaempferol-3-O-glucopyranoside	Morus nigra	Anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive effects	In vivo study	[151]
2-hydroxy-3-methoxy benzaldehyde	Janakia arayalpathra	Anti-PLA2	In vitro study	[92]
Marmin	Aegle marmelos	Anti-snake venom	In vivo study	[85]
Cabenegrins AI and A-II	Annona coriaceae	Anti-snake venom	In vitro and in vivo studies	[107]
Boc-5 and Boc-10 (sulfated galactans)	Botryocladia occidentalis	Anti-edematogenic, anti-myotoxic, and anti-neurotoxic	In vivo study	[152]
Edunol	Brongniartia podalyrioides	Protective effect against Bothrops atrox venom	In vivo study	[45]
Dolastane	Canistrocarpus cervicornis	Inhibition of induced hemorrhaging, hemolysis, and coagulation	In vitro and in vivo studies	[116]
Manoalide	Luffariella variabilis	Inhibition of extracellular PLA2 activity of cobras	In vitro study	[153]
DM64 (acidic glycoprotein)	Didelphis marsupialis	PLA2 inhibitor and prevention of myofiber breakdown caused by myotoxins I (Asp49) and II (Lys49) of B. asper venom	In vitro and in vivo studies	[154]
Aristolochic acid (8-methoxy-6-nitrophenanthro(3,4-d)-1,3-dioxole-5-carboxylic acid) Caffeic acid (3-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)-2-propenoic acid)	Aristolochia species Vernonia condensate	Inhibition of piratoxin-1 (PrTX-1), a Lys49-PLA2 isolated from Bothrops pirajai venom Inhibition of PrTX-1 and antidote activity against B. jararaca venom	Oral or parenteral administration In vitro and in vivo studies	[85,119] [121]