Table 2.

Effects of meat components intake–in vivo studies performed on animals.

Component	Experimental Model	Treatment	Effects	Reference
Acetyl-l-Carnitine (Sigma-Tau, Italy)	Pathogen-free male Wistar rats with oxidative stress induced by NaAsO2 intoxication (20 mg/kg)	Orally administered 300 mg Acetyl-l-Carnitine/kg, 1 h prior to NaAsO2 for 28 days.	• AST↓, ALT↓, LDH↓, bilirubin↓; • oxidant/antioxidant organs status (kidney, liver, heart, lung, brain): GST↑, SOD↑, CAT↑, TBARS↓, -SH↓; • significantly suppressed oxidative organs damage;	Sepand, Razavi-Azarkhiavi, Omidi at al. [44]
l-carnitine (Solgar Vitamin and Herb, USA)	Male Wistar Albino rats fed cholesterol rich diet (7.5% cholesterol)	L-carnitine aqueous solution 75 mg/L for 40 days.	TBARS↓, GSH↑, SOD↑, GPx↔, CAT↔	Keskin, Uluisik and Altin [45]
l-carnitine (MEPACO, Egypt)	New Zealand rabbits	Diets contained 25, 50 and 100 mg l-carnitine/kg for 4 weeks.	• blood constituents: TC↓, TG↓, HDL↑, LDL↓, VLDL↓, glucose↑; • metabolites: creatinine↑ • plasma enzymes activity: AST↓, ALT↓, ALP↓; • electrolytes: Na↓, K↑, Cl↑; • hormones: T3↑, T4↑, cortisol↓.	Elgazzar, Ghanema and Kalaba [46]
l-carnitine	Rats with oxidative stress induced by aspartame intoxication (75 mg/kg or 150 mg/kg)	Oral dose 10 mg l-carnitine/kg for 30 days	• TG↓, TC↓, HDL↑, LDL↓, VLDL↓, ALT↓, AST↓, ALP↓, LDH↓, GGT↓, total proteins↑, albumin↑, CRP↓, TNF-α↓, IL-6↓; hepatic: MDA↓, SOD↑, CAT↑, GPx↑, GSH↑; serum hepatic: MPO↓, XO↓ • more percentage of intact liver cells with undamaged DNA and fewer comet cells • decrased area of damaged cells in liver, obvious improvement liver histology	Hamza, Al-Eisa, Mehana, El-Shenawy et al. [47]
l-carnitine (Northeast Pharmaceutical Factory, China)	Male Kunming SPF mice with induced diabetes by high-calorie diet (20% sugar, 18% lard) and two low doses of STZ (100 mg/kg, i.p.) at age of 6 and 9 weeks.	High 250 mg l-carnitine/kg i.g. dose or low 125 mg l-carnitine/kg i.g. dose for 3 weeks.	• BW↓, liver weight↓; • liver: FFA↔, TG↓, L-carnitine↔, Acetyl-L-carnitine↓; • plasma: TG↔; • reduced numer lipid droplet deposits in hepatocytes • recovered mitochondrial damage	Xia, Li, Zhong et al. [48]
l-Carnosine (Sigma-Aldrich, USA)	Male Wistar rats with mimic natural agening induced by applying d-galactose subcutaneously as 300 mg/kg, 5 days/week for 2 months	250 mg/kg, i.p. 5 days/week for 2 months	total testosterone↔; testicular: ROS↓, TBARS↓, DC↓, PC↓, AOPP↓, AGE↓, FRAP↔, GSH↔, SOD↔, GPx↔, GST↔	Aydın, Küçükgergin, Çoban et al. [49]
l-Carnosine (Sigma-Aldrich, USA)	Male Wistar rats with induced diabetes by high fat diet (60% of total calories from fat) and single STZ injection at a dose of 40 mg/kg BW	250 mg/kg BW i.p. 5 times a Week for last 4 weeks of study	• BW↔, liver weight↔ • serum: glucose↔, HbA1c↔, TG↓, TC↓, ALT↓, AST↓, LDH↓ • serum/plasma: ROS↓, MDA↔, i-MDA↓, AOPP↓, AGE↓, FRAP↔ • hepatic: TG↓, TC↔, ROS↓, MDA↓, PC↓, AOPP↔, AGE↓, FRAP↔, GSH↔, SOD↔, CAT↔, GPx↔; mRNA expression of hepatic SOD↔, GPx↔ • liver histopathologic scoring steatosis↓, lobular inflammation↔ and hepatocyte ballooning↓	Aydın, Bingül, Küçükgergin et al. [50]
l-Carnosine (Sigma-Aldrich, USA)	Male Wistar rats with induced diabetes by high fat diet (34.3–60% fat of total calories) and STZ injection at a dose of 40 mg/kg BW	250 mg/kg BW i.p. 5 times a week for 4 weeks	• BW↔, kidney weight↔ • blood: glucose↔, HbA1c↔, TG↓, TC↓, • serum: BUN↓, creatinine↓, total protein↔, albumin↔ • kidney: ROS↓, MDA↓, PC↓, AOPP↓, AGE↓, FRAP↔, GSH↔, SOD↔, CAT↔, GPx↔; mRNA expression of kidney SOD↔, GPx↔ • Histopathologic examination of kidney tissue showed normal appearance of glomeruli and tubules in all rat groups	Aydın, Küçükgergin, Bingül et al. [51]
l-Carnosine (Sigma-Aldrich, USA)	Aged (20 months-of-age) male Wistar rats	250 mg/kg/5 days per week; i.p. for 2 months	• serum/plasma: AGE↓, PC↓, AOPP↓, MDA↓, FRAP↔, ROS↓ • liver: AGE↓, PC↓, AOPP↓, MDA↓, FRAP↔, ROS↓	Bingül, Yılmaz, Aydın et al. [52]
Coenzyme-Q10 (Mepaco company, Egypt).	Male albino rats fed cholesterol rich diet (5% cholesterol)	1mg coenzyme Q10/rat by oral gavage for 4 months	• TG↓, TC↓, HDL↑, LDL↓, SOD↑, CAT↑, GPx↑, MDA↓, • amelioration histological and biochemical structure of cerebellal cortex	El-Haleem, Yassen, and Raafat [53]
Creatine monohydrate	Male Sprague-Dawley rats with NAFLD induced by high-fat liquid diet with 71% of energy derived from fat	Free access to food diet with 1% (w/v) creatine monohydrate throughout the 3 weeks	• BW↔, • liver: fat↓, TG↓, TC↓, TBARS↓, SAM↑, SAH↔, SAM/SAH↑, phosphatidylcholine↔, phosphatidylethanolamine↑; mRNA levels: Pemt↔, PPARα↑, CD36↓, CPT1a↑, LCAD↑, Bhmt↓, Gnmt↓, MGAT↓ • plasma: glucose↔, insulin↔, creatine↑, GAA↓, Hcy↔, Cys↑, • kidney: AGAT↓	Deminice, da Silva, Lamarre et al. [54]
Creatine monohydrate	Male Wistar rats with nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) induced by choline-deficient diet	2% (w/v) creatine monohydrate in diet (free access to food) for 4 weeks	• BW↔, food intake↔ • plasma: creatine↑, Hcy↓, methionine↔, Cys↔, phosphatidylcholine↔, ALT↓, TNF-α↓ • liver: fat↓, TG↓, TC↓, creatinie↑, SAM↔, SAH↑, SAM/SAH↔, phosphatidylcholine↔, MDA↓, GSH↑, GSH/GSSG↑, TNF-α↓, PPARγ↔, • mRNA genes expression: - methionine metabolism: Bhmt1↑, Cbs↔, Pemt↔, Gnmt↑ - phospholipids metabolism: Chka↔, Chkb↔, ChDh↓, Pcyt1a↔ - MTP↔ - transcription factors: PPARα↓, PPARγ↔, - fatty acid oxidation genes: UCP2↓, PGC1a↔, LCAD↑, CPT1a↓, FABP3↔, HAD↔ • kidney: AGAT↓	Deminice, de Castro, Francisco et al. [55]
Creatine monohydrate	Sprague–Dawley rats with NAFLD induced by HFD (0.82 kcal/g protein, 3.24 kcal/g fat and 1.43 kcal/g carbohydrate for a total of 5.49 kcal/g)	2% creatine monohydrate in diet (20 g/kg) for 4 weeks	• BW↔, calorie intake↔, • liver: weight↔, TG↓, cholesterol ester↓, MTTP↔, • liver cytokines: Eotaxin↔, EGF↔, Fractalkine↔, IFN-γ↔, IL-1α↔, IL-1β↔, IL-2↔, IL-4↔, IL-5↔, IL-6↔, IL-10↓, IL-12(p70) ↔, IL-13↔, IL-17A↔, IL-18↔, IP-10↔, GRO/KC↔, TNF-α↔, G-CSF↔, GM-CSF↔, MCP-1↔, leptin↔, LIX↔, MIP-1α↔, MIP-2↔, RANTES↔, VEGF↔. • plasma: appearance over time TG↔, ApoB48↑, ApoB100↔; fasting: TG↔, ApoB48↔, ApoB100↔; AUC: TG↔, ApoB48↔, ApoB100↔. • mitochondrial respiratory chain complexes: VDAC loading control↑, VDAC loading control: complex I↔, II↔, III↔, IV↔, V↔; PDI loading control: complex I↔, II↑, III↔, IV↔, V↔; ND6 DNA↔, ATP6 DNA↔	da Silva, Leonard and Jacobs [56]
α-Lipoic acid (Hi-Media chemicals, India)	Male Sprague-Dawley albino rats with fructose-induced experimental cataract (10% w/v fructose solution in drinking water-equivalent to a diet containing 48–57% fructose) for 8 weeks	20 or 40 mg lipoic acid/kg/d orally by gavage for 8 weeks	• MAP↓, glucose↓, lens: GPx↑, CAT↑, SOD↑, GSH↑, MDA↓, total proteins↑, Ca2+ ATPase activity↑, Ca2+↓, • potentially reduced progression of cataract formation: stage of cataract↓, delayed progression of cataract formation	Khan, Choudhary, Vishwakarma et al. [57]
α-Lipoic acid powder (Sigma, USA)	Wistar rats with alloxan induced diabete	100 mg lipoic acid/kg/d BW i.p. injection for 6 weeks	• serum: GPx↑, CAT↑, MPO↓, MDA↓, GSH↑, glucose↓, urea↓, creatinine↓ • liver: : GPx↔, CAT↑, MPO↓, MDA↓, GSH↑, • kidney: : GPx↑, CAT↑, MPO↓, MDA↓, GSH↑, mRNA levels: SOD↑, CAT↑ GPx↑, • histopathological lesions such as increased glomerularvolume and lymphocyte infiltration were attenuated	Jamor, Ahmadvand, Ashoory and Babaeenezhad [58]
α-Lipoic acid	C57BL6 mice with obesity induced by high-fat diet (60% kcal% fat)	0.2% lipoic acid in diet for 12 weeks	BW↓, food intake↓, caloric intake↓, % body fat↔, LBM↓, BFM↓	Panzhinskiy, Bashir, Bagchi and Nair [59]
α-Lipoic acid powder (Sigma, USA)	Male Sprague Dawley rats with diabetes inducted with injection of 100 mg/kg alloxan	100 mg lipoic acid/kg was injected i.p. daily for 6 weeks	glucose↓, TG↓, TC↓, HDL↑, LDL↓, VLDL↓, PON1↑	Jamor, Ahmadvand, Birjandi and Sharafabad [60]
α-Lipoic acid	Diabetic Goto-Kakizaki rats fed HFD (7.5% cocoa butter, and 1.25% cholesterol)	50 mg/kg BW i.p., 3 days/week for 3 months	• BW↔, liver weight↓, fasting blood glucose↓, blood glucose 2 h after load↔, TC↓, non-HDL↓, TG↓, albumin↔, T-Bilirubin↔, AST↓, ALT↔, ALP↓, GGT↓, HEF↑, MDA↓, 8-OHdG↓, UA↓ • liver: TC↓, TG↓, GPx↑, GRd↑, MDA↓, GSH↑, Nrf2↑, TNF-α↓,	Sena, Cipriano, Botelho and Seiça [61]
Liposomal Glutathione (8.25% GSH (84.5 mg/mL), 75.15% deionized water, 15% glycerin, 1.5% lecithin, and 0.1% potassium sorbate (% w/w)	Atherosclerotic apolipoprotein E-deficient (E0) mice	12.5 or 50 mg/kg/d in drinking water for 2 months	• TC↓, HDL↓, TG↑, glucose↔, AAPH induced serum lipid peroxidation↓, • mouse peritoneal macrophages (MPM): GSH↑, PON2 lactonase activity↑, total peroxides↓, LDL uptake↓, Ox-LDL uptake↓, cholesterol biosynthesis↓, HDL-mediated macrophage cholesterol efflux↑, TC↓, atherosclerotic lesion area↓	Rosenblat, Volkova, Coleman and Aviram [62]
Liposomal Glutathione “ReadiSorb” glutathione (Your Energy Systems, LLC, USA)	Male, New Zealand white rabbits	Orally administered 5 mL of liposomal glutathione (containing approximately 428.8 mg of GSH) for 3, 7 or 14 days	LVEDP↓; LVDP↓; CPP↓; total GSH: heart↑, liver↑, brain↔; cTnI↔; heart MDA↔	Lauver, Kaissarian and Lucchesi [63]
Peptides (protein hydrolysate, Phe-Gln-Pro and Phe-Gln-Pro-Ser) protein hydrolysate from meat of Kacang goat (Capra aegagrus hircus) was obtained by Protamex® and Flavourzyme® digestion	Male SHR	Single oral administration: - 0.01 or 0.1 g hydrolysate Kacang goat meat/kg BW - 0.00195 g Phe-Gln-Pro/kg BW - 0.00239 g Phe-Gln-Pro-Ser/kg BW	• after administering 0.01 g or 0.1 g hydrolysate/kg BW highest reduction of SBP was 19.3 or 26.9 mmHg, occurred at 6 h after administration. SBP was still significantly lower than that of the control group after 24 h. • Phe-Gln-Pro showed the highest reduction of SBP by 12.6 mm Hg at 6 h • Phe-Gln-Pro-Ser showed the highest reduction of SBP by 10.6 mmm Hg at 8 h after administration • SBP 24 h after pure peptides administration was not different to the controls	Mirdhayati, Hermanianto, Wijaya et al. [64]
Peptides Three sample extracts of pooled fractions from Spanish dry-cured hams	Male SHRs	Single oral administration 4.56 mg of sample 1/kg BW or 1.48 mg of sample 2/kg BW or 8.7 mg of sample 3/kg BW by gastric intubation with a metal tube	• All samples decrase SBP: - sample 1 by 33.1 mm Hg and 38.38 mm Hg after 4 and 6 h; - sample 2 by 27.48 mm Hg after 6 h - sample 3 by 23.56 mm Hg at 6 h after oral administration. • In all cases SBP returned to pretreatment values after 24 h.	Escudero, Aristoy, Nishimura et al. [65]
Peptides (RPR, KAPVA and PTPVP) peptides identified in pork meat hydrolysate after in vitro digestion	Male SHRs	Single administration of distilled water peptide suspension 1 mg peptide/kg of BW by gastric intubation.	• analysed peptides decrase mean SBP compared with the control SHRs: - RPR decrease 33.21, 28.81 and 21.16 mm Hg at 6, 8 and 4 h after administration - KAPVA decrease 19.1 and 33.72 at 4 and 6 h after administration - PTPVP decreased by 24.52 and 25.66 mm Hg at 4 and 6 h after administration • in all cases SBP returned to pretreatment values after 24 h.	Escudero, Toldrá, Sentandreu et al. [66]
Peptides (KRVITY, Lys-Arg-Val-Ile-Gln-Tyr; VKAGF, Val-Lys-Ala-Gly-Phe) identified in pork loin muscle after extraction and pepsin hydrolysis	SHRs	10 mg KRVITY or VKAGF/kg BW with a metal oral syringe	• KRVITY decrease SBP by 12 mmHg in 3 h and 23 mmHg in 6 h after oral administration • VKAGF decrease SBP by 12 mmHg in 3 h and 17 mmHg in 6 h after oral administration	Muguruma, Ahhmed, Katayama et al. [67]
Peptides (YYRA, Tyr-Tyr-Arg-Ala) identified in chicken bone after extraction and hydrolysis with pepsin	SHRs	Single oral administration 10 mg/kg BW administered orally by intubation.	SBP decrase significantly over a short period of time 3 h from 3rd to 6th h	Nakade, Kamishima, Inoue et al. [68]
Peptides low fraction hydrolysate from chicken legs collagen obtained by extraction and digestion with protease	Male SHRs	3 g hydrolysate/kg BW single administration or long-term administration for 4 weeks	• after single administration reduction in blood pressure was observed from 4 to 8 h • long-term administration showed that there was a reduction in from 2nd to 4th week of the study	Saiga, Iwai, Hayakawa et al. [69]
Taurine (Sigma Chemical Co., USA)	Male albino rats (Rattus norvegicus) i.p. injected with 5-fluorouracil (20 mg/kg BW/day) for 7 days.	50 mg/kg BW/day for 21 days: 7 days alone, 7 days parallel with i.p. injections with 5-fluorouracil, 7 days alone	• BUN↓, creatinine↓, UA↓, SOD↑, CAT↑, GPx↑, MDA↓, GGT↑, ALP↑ • reversed most histological and ultrastructural alterations in kidney tissues	Yousef and Aboelwafa [70]
Taurine	Male Wistar rats fed high fructose diet (60% fructose)	2% taurine solution ad libitum for 30 days	BW↔, SBP↓, kallikrein: heart↑, kidney↑, plasma↑, urine↑; sodium: plasma↓, urine↑	Nandhini and Anuradha [71]
Taurine (Taisho Pharmaceutical, Japan)	Male Golden Syrian hamsters fed high-fat diet (0.05% cholesterol and 10% coconut oil).	Taurine dissolved in drinking water at 1% (w/v) was freely available for 14 days	• BW↔, TC↓, non-HDL↓, HDL↔, TG↓, phospholipids↓, ACAT↓, HMG–CoA reductase↔, cholesterol 7a–hydroxylase↑, • up-regulation LDL receptor activity • acceleration receptor-mediated LDL turnover	Murakami, Kondo, Toda et al. [72]
Taurine (Sigma Chemicals, USA)	Male Wistar rats with oxidative injuries induced by Fipronil supplementation 19.4 mg/kg for 5 days (6–10th day of the experiment).	Oral dose 50 mg/kg daily (5 days before and 5 days along with Fipronil supplementation)	• liver: MDA↓, NO↓, GSH↑, GPx↑, SOD↑, CAT↑, AST↓, ALT↓, ALP↓, LDH↓, TC↓, • kidney: MDA↓, NO↓, GSH↑, GPx↑, SOD↑, CAT↑, urea↓, creatinine↓ • amelioration and normalization of the harmful effects of Fipronil on hepatorenal injury	Abdel-Daim, Dessouki, Abdel-Rahman et al. [73]
Taurine (Sigma–Aldrich Chemical Company, USA)	Male Wistar rats with diabetes and testicular damage induced by one i.p. injection of 50 STZ mg/kg BW	100 mg/kg BW daily, via oral gavage, for 6 weeks.	• glucose↓, insulin↑, testis weight/BW↑, MDA↓, protein carbonylation↓, GSH/GSSG↑, SOD↑, CAT↑, TNF-α↓, IL-1β↓, IL-6↓, MCP-1↓, ICAM-1↓, VCAM-1↓, testosterone↑, 3β-HSD↑, 17β-HSD↑, SDH↑ • testicular tissue: ER stress related pathway: calpain-1↓, cleaved Caspase-12↓, p-PERK↓, p-eIF2α/total eIF2α↓, CHOP↓, Grp78↓; NFκB mediated pathway: nuclear NFκB↓, cytosolic NFκB↑, phospho and total I ĸBα↓; mitochondria dependent apoptotic pathways: Bax/Bcl-2↓, cytosolic cytochrome-C↓, mitochondrial cytochrome-C↑, cleaved Caspase-9↓, cleaved Caspase-3↓, cleaved PARP↓ • treatment with taurine improve histological alterations like loss of spermatids, disappearance of testicular cells like Leydig and Sertoli cells, sloughing of centrally located spermatozoa and the disruption of germinal epithelium.	Ghosh, Chowdhury, Das et al. [74]
Taurine (Sigma-Aldrich, USA)	Male BALB/c mice with Colistin (15 mg/kg/d, i.p. for 7 consecutive days) associated renal injury	500 or 1000 mg/kg/d, i.p for 7 consecutive days	• BUN↓, creatinine↓, kidney: ROS↓, TBARS↓, TAC↑ GSSG↓, GSH↑, GSH/GSSG↑, histopathological SQS↓ • mitochondrial: dehydrogenases↑, swelling↓, depolarization↓, ATP↑, TBARS↓, GSH↑, GSSG↓, GSH/GSSG↑	Heidari, Behnamrad, Khodami et al. [75]
Taurine (Sigma Chemical Co., USA)	Male Wistar rats with hypertension induced by L-NAME at 40 mg/kg BW p.o. daily	100 and 200 mg/kg p.o. for 28 days	• SBP↓, DBP↓, MAP↓, BW↔, OSI of the testes↔, OSI of the epididymis↔, ACP↑, ALP↑, LDH↑, LH↑, FSH↑, testosterone↑, • testes: SOD↑, CAT↑, GPx↑, GSH↑, H2O2↓, MDA↓, MPO↓, NO↑ • epididymis: SOD↔, CAT↑, GPx↑, GSH↔, H2O2↓, MDA↓, MPO↓, NO↑ • sperm: testicular sperm number↑, epididymal sperm number↑, motility↑, viability↔, abnormalities↔	Adedara, Alake, Adeyemo et al. [76]
Taurine (Sigma-Aldrich, USA)	Male Wistar albino rats with malathion induced toxicity (27 mg/kg orally)	0.5 mL taurine solution at dose of 50, 100, and 200 mg/kg orally for 30 days	• blood: MDA↓, GSH↑ • erythrocyte: SOD↓, CAT↔ • serum: AChE↑ • liver: MDA↓, GSH, SOD↓, CAT↓, AChE↑, mRNA levels: IFN-γ↓, NFĸB↓, TNF-α↓, IL-1β↓, • testis: MDA↓, GSH↑, SOD↓, CAT↓, • brain: MDA↓, GSH↑, SOD↓, CAT↓, • kidney: MDA↓, GSH↑, SOD↓, CAT↓, • preventive action against malathion-induced histopathological changes in rat tissues.	Ince, Arslan-Acaroz, Demirel et al. [77]
Taurine (Sigma-Aldrich, USA)	Male Wistar rats with diabetes induced by a single i.p. injection of 40 mg STZ/kg BW	50 mg/kg BW for 60 days	AChE↓, GnRH↓, TRH↑, T3↑, T4↑, TSH↓, testosterone↑, FSH↓, LH↓, sperm count↑, abnormal sperms↓, motility↑, • brain: MDA↓, SOD↑, CAT↑, • thyroid: MDA↓, SOD↑, CAT↑, • testis: MDA↓, SOD↑, CAT↑ • marked repairing of testicular abnormalities and a maximum healing effect against STZ induced testicular damage	Mohamed and Gawad [78]
Taurine (Sigma-Aldrich, USA)	Male Wistar rats with cognitive impairment induced by intracerebroventricular STZ injection at a dose of 3 mg/kg	40, 60 and 120 mg/kg p.o. by gavage for 28 days	• BW↔, • cortex: GSH↑, MDA↓, NO↓, SOD↑, AChE↓, BChE↓, TNF-α↓, IL-1β↓, ROCK-II↓, GSK-3β↔, ChAT↔ • hippocampus: GSH↑, MDA↓, NO↓, SOD↑, AChE↓, BChE↓, TNF-α↓, IL-1β↓, ROCK-II↓, GSK-3β↔, ChAT↑ • improved behavioural parameters: escape latency↓, time spent in target quadrant↑, retention transfer latency in elevated plus maze test↓, transfer latency in passive avoidance test↑	Reeta, Singh and Gupta [79]

Abbreviations: 17β-HSD, 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase; 3β-HSD, 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase; 8-OHdG, urinary 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine; AAPH, 2,2-azobis 2, amidinopropane hydrochloride; ACAT, acyl-CoA cholesterol acyltransferase; AChE: acetylcholinesterase; ACP, acid phosphatase; AGAT, arginine:glycine amidinotransferase; AGE, advanced glycation end products; ALP, alkaline phosphatase; ALT, alanine aminotransferase; ALT, alanine transaminase; AOPP, advanced oxidised protein products; ApoA1, apolipoprotein A1; ApoB, apolipoprotein B; AST, aspartate aminotransferase; AST, aspartate transaminase; ATP6, mitochondrially encoded ATP synthase membrane subunit 6; AUC, area under curve; Bax, pro apoptotic protein; BChE, butyrylcholinesterase; Bcl-2, B-cell lymphoma 2; BFM, body fat mass; Bhmt, betaine-homocysteine S-methyltransferase; BUN, blood urea nitrogen; BW, body weight; CAT, catalase; Cbs, cystathionine beta synthase; CD36, scavenger receptor that functions in high affinity tissue uptake of long chain fatty acids; ChAT, choline acetyltransferase; ChDh, choline dehydrogenase; Chka, choline kinase alpha; Chkb, choline kinase beta; CHOP, C/EBP homologous protein; CPP, coronary perfusion pressure; CPT1a, carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1a; CRP, C-reactive protein; cTnI Cardiac-specific troponin I; Cys, cysteine; DBP, diastolic blood pressure; DC, diene conjugate; EGF, epidermal growth factor; eIF2α, eukaryotic initiation factor 2α; FABP3, fatty acid binding protein 3; FFA, free fatty acid; FRAP, ferric reducing anti-oxidant power; FSH, reproductive hormone; GAA, guanidinoacetic acid; G-CSF, granulocyte colony stimulating factor; GGT, gamma-glutamyl transferase; GM-CSF, granulocyte macrophage colony stimulating factor; Gnmt, glycine N-methyltransferase; GnRH, gonadotropin releasing hormone; GPx, glutathione peroxidase; GRd, glutathione reductase; GRP78, 78 kDa glucose regulated protein; GSH, glutathione; GSK-3β, glycogen synthase kinase-3β; GSSG, GSH disulfide (GSH oxidation product); GST, glutathione transferase; HAD, hydroxyacyl CoA dehydrogenase; HbA1c, glycosylated hemoglobin; Hcy, homocysteine; HDL, high density lipoprotein cholesterol; HEF, hepatic extraction fraction; HFD, high fat diet; HMG-CoA, 3–hydroxy–3–methylglutaryl coenzyme A; i.g., intragastric; i.p., intraperitoneal; i.v., intravenous; ICAM-1, intercellular adhesion molecule; IFN-γ, interferon gamma; IL, interleukin; i-MDA endogenous and AAPH-induced malondialdehyde; IP-10, IFN-γ induced protein 10; LBM, lean body mass; LCAD, long-chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase; LDH, lactate dehydrogenase; LDL, low density lipoprotein cholesterol; LH, reproductive hormone; LIX, lipopolysaccharide-induced CXC chemokine; L-NAME: N-nitro L-argininemethyl-ester; LVDP, left ventricular developed pressure; LVEDP, left ventricular end diastolic pressure; MAP, mean arterial pressure; MCP-1, monocyte chemoattractant protein; MDA, malondialdehyde; MGAT, mannosyl (alpha-1,3-)-glycoprotein beta-1,2-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase; MIP, macrophage inflammatory proteins; MPO, myeloperoxidase; MTP, microsomal triglyceride transfer protein; MTTP, microsomal triglyceride transfer protein; ND6, NADH dehydrogenase, subunit 6 (complex I); NFκB, nuclear factor kappa; NO, nitric oxide; Nrf2- nuclear factor E2 (erythroid-derived 2)-related factor-2; OSI, organo somatic indices; Ox-LDL, oxidized LDL; PARP, poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase; PC, protein carbonyl; Pcyt1a, phosphate cytidylyltransferase 1; PDI, protein disulfide isomerase; Pemt, phosphatidylethanolamine N-methyltransferase; PERK, Protein kinase R like endoplasmic reticulum kinase; PGC1a, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma, coactivator 1 alpha; PON1, paraoxonase 1; PON2, paraoxonase 2; PPAR, peroxisome proliferator activated receptor; RANTES, regulated on activation, normal T-cell expressed and secreted; ROCK-II, rho kinase II, ROS, reactive oxygen species; SAH, S-adenosylhomocystein; SAM, S-adenosylmethionine; SBP, systolic blood pressure; SDH, sorbitol dehydrogenase; SH, sulfhydryl group; SHR, spontaneously hypertensive rats; SOD, superoxide dismutase; SPF, specific pathogen free; SQS, semi-quantitative score; STZ, streptozotocin; T3, triiodothyronine; T4, thyroxine; TAC, total antioxidant capacity; TBARS, thiobarbituric acid reactive substances; TC, total cholesterol; TG, triglycerides; TNF-α, tumor necrosis factor alpha; TRH, thyroid releasing hormone; TSH, thyroid stimulating hormone; UA, uric acid; UCP2, uncoupling protein 2; VCAM-1, vascular cell adhesion molecule; VDAC, voltage dependent anion channel; VEGF, vascular endothelial growth factor; VLDL, very low density lipoprotein; XO, xanthine oxidase; ↑—value increase; ↓—value decrease; ↔—equivalent values.