Table 1.

Studies conducted in rodent models using lard-based high-fat diets.

Reference	Animal Model	% Fat	Main Fat Source	Changes in Gut Microbiota	Potential Mechanisms Involved in the Relationship between Changes in Microbiota and Liver Steatosis
Gauffin Cano et al. (2012) [19]	Male C57BL-6 mice (6–8-week-old)	60%	Lard	↓ Lactobacillus, Bifidobacterium, Clostridium coccoides and Clostridium leptum ↑ Enterobacteriaceae	↑ Production of TNF-α by macrophages and dendritic cells (in vitro, stool-induced)
Mei et al. (2015) [24]	Male Sprague–Dawley rats	45%	Lard	↑ Firmicutes ↓ Bacteroidetes	Not detailed
Seo et al. (2015) [25]	Male C57BL/6 mice (6-week-old)	45%	Lard	↑ Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio ↑ Bacteroides/Prevotella ratio	Not detailed
Wang et al. (2015) [26]	Male C57BL/6J mice (10-week-old)	60%	Lard	↑ Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio ↑ Proteobacteria ↓ Actinobacteria	↑ Hepatic Tnf-α mRNA induced by ↑ LPS levels in plasma
Leal-Díaz et al. (2016) [27]	Male C57BL/6 mice (5-week-old)	45%	Lard	↓ Bacteria diversity ↓ Prevotella, Mucispirillum and Oscillospira	Not detailed
Liu et al. (2016) [28]	Male Sprague–Dawley rats (5-week-old)	60%	Lard	↓ Bacteroidetes/Firmicutes ratio ↑ Roseburia and Oscillospira ↓ Bacteroides and Parabacterioides	↑ LPS levels in plasma
Monteiro et al. (2016) [29]	Male C57BL/6 mice	38%	Lard	↑ Firmicutes, Verrucomicrobia and Akkermansia ↓ Bacteroidetes, Proteobacteria, Helicobacter and Bacteroides	↑ LPS
Tian et al. (2016) [30]	Male Sprague–Dawley rats (8–9-week-old)	45%	Lard	↑ Prevotella and Bacteroides ↑ Blautia, Faecalibacterium, Lactobacillus, Escherichia and Sutterella ↓ Ruminococcus, Oscillospira and Clostridium	Not detailed
Tung et al. (2016) [31]	Male C57BL/6 mice (5-week-old)	45%	Lard	↓ Firmicutes ↑ Bacteroidetes ↓ Clostridiales ↑ Bacteroidales and Sphingobacteriales	Not detailed
Chiu et al. (2017) [32]	Male GF C57BL/6JNarl mice (3–4-week-old)	60%	Lard	↑ Firmicutes	Not detailed
Duparc et al. (2017) [33]	C57BL/6 WT mice (Hepatocyte-specific Myd88 KO mice)	60%	Lard	↑ Bacterial diversity ↑ Firmicutes ↓ Tenericutes ↓ Sutterella and Allobaculum ↑ Ruminococcus and Oscillospira	Not detailed
Feng et al. (2017) [34]	Male Sprague–Dawley rats (4-week-old)	45%	Lard	↑ Actinobacteria, Proteobacteria and Deferribacteres ↓ Spirochaetae ↑ Collinsella, Streptococcus, Gemella and Elusimicrobium ↓ Treponema and Quinella	↑ LPS levels in plasma ↓ Intestinal tight-junction
Porras et al. (2017) [35]	Male C57BL/6J mice (7-week-old)	60%	Lard	↓ Concentration of total bacteria ↑ Helicobacter expansion ↑ Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio ↑ Proteobacteria ↑ Clostridia, Bacilli and Deltaproteobacteria ↓ Bacteroidia, Erysipelotrichi and Betaproteobacteria	↓ Intestinal tight-junction ↓ Acetate, butyrate and propionate SCFAs ↑ LPS and ethanol levels in plasma
Su et al. (2017) [23]	Male BALB/c mice (4–6-week-old)	60%	Lard	↑ Firmicutes ↓ Bacteroidetes ↑ Helicobacter hepaticus ↓ Akkermansia muciniphila	↑ LPS levels in plasma ↓ Intestinal tight junctions
Wang et al. (2017) [21]	Male ICR mice (4-week-old)	60%	Lard	↓ Bacteroidetes/Firmicutes ratio ↓ Deferribacteres	Not detailed
Xu et al. (2017) [22]	Male C57BL/6J mice (10-week-old)	60%	Lard	↑ Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio ↑Helicobacter marmotae, Odoribacter and Anaerotruncus	Not detailed
Chen et al. (2018) [36]	Male Sprague–Dawley rats (6-week-old)	60%	Lard	↑ Proteobacteria and Verrucomicrobia ↓ Bacterioidetes and Tenericutes relative abundances	Not detailed
Jia et al. (2018) [37]	C57BL/6 J mice (6-week-old)	60%	Lard	↑ Firmicutes, Eubacterium, Blautia, Clostridium, Lactobacillus and Escherichia ↓ Parasutterella	Not detailed
Jing et al. (2018) [38]	Male C57BL/6J mice	60%	Lard	↓ Firmicutes ↑ Verrucomicrobia	Not detailed
Li et al. (2018) [39]	Male C57BL/6J mice (8-week-old)	60%	Lard	↑ Firmicutes, Proteobacteria, Lachnoclostridium, Acetatifactor, Lactococcus, Romboutsia, Enterorhabdus and Dorea ↓ Actinobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Verrucomicrobia, Akkermansia, Olsenella, Barnesiella and Alloprevotella	Not detailed
Li et al. (2018) [40]	Male C57BL/6J mice	30%	Lard	↑ Candidatus, Saccharibacteria, Proteobacteria, Firmicutes, Bacilli, Lactobacillaceae, Helicobacteraceae, Coriobacteriacea and Ruminococcaceae ↓Bacteroidetes, Deltaproteobacteria and Porphyromonadaceae	Not detailed
Martins et al. (2018) [41]	Female C57BL/6 mice (deficient in IL-23)	60%	Lard	↑ Lactobacillaeceae and S24-7 ↓ Lachnospiraceae	↑LPS levels in plasma
Wang et al. (2018) [42]	C57BL/6 J mice	60%	Lard	↑ Clostridium leptum ↓ Bacteriodetes fragilis	Not detailed
Wu et al. (2018) [43]	C57BL/6 J mice	60%	Lard	↑Deltaproteobacteria, Deferribacteres, Desulfovibrionaceae, Deferribacteraceae, Porphyromonadaceae	Not detailed
Chen et al. (2019) [44]	C57BL/6J WT mice	60%	Lard	↑ Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio	↑Mucosal damage ↑ Co-localization of HMGB1 and CD63, in gut ↑HMGB1 in serous exosomes
	C57BL/6J ASC-KO mice	60%	Lard	↓ Bacterial diversity ↑ Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio ↑ Streptococcaceae	↑Mucosal damage ↑ Co-localization of HMGB1 and CD63, in gut ↑ HMGB1 in serous exosomes
Duan et al. (2019) [45]	BALB/c mice	45%	Lard	↑ Firmicutes, Allobaculum spp, Pseudomonas and Lachnoclostridium. ↓ Bacteriodetes, Rikenellaceae, Prevotellaceae, Bacteroidales (S24-7)	Not detailed
Tang et al. (2019) [46]	Male Sprague–Dawley rats (6-week-old)	60%	Lard	↑ Firmicutes ↓ Bacteriodetes	Changes in bile acids (↑ taurocholic and ↓ taurohyodeoxycholic and urodeoxycholic acid contents)
Wu et al. (2019) [47]	Male C57BL/c mice	60%	Lard	↓ Bacteroidetes/Firmicutes ratio ↑ Anaerotruncus, Streptococcus and Bacteroides	Not detailed

ASC-KO: apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a C-terminal caspase recruitment domain knock-down, CD63: cluster of differentiation 63, GF: germ free, HF: high-fat, HMGB1: high mobility group box 1, ICR: institute of Cancer Research, IL-23: interleukin 23, LPS: lipopolysaccharide, SCFA: short-chain fatty acids, SPF: specific pathogen-free, TNFα: tumor necrosis factor α, WT: wild-type. ↑: significant increase, ↓: significant decrease.