Table 2.
Weighted averages of any anemia prevalence, and pattern and associations across countries in anemia prevalence among children and women by household water and sanitation characteristics, DHS surveys (2006−2017)
| Variable | Categories | Weighted average prevalence of anemiaa | Percentage of countries with the highest prevalence of anemia by categoryb | Overall anemia prevalence pattern | Associations (see Annex C and D for forest plots, online only)d |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Children, 6–59 months of age | n = 385,541 | n = 47 | Adjusted for age and sex | ||
| Water access | On‐premises Off‐premises |
57.7 51.6 |
9.1 90.9 |
In 91% of countries, prevalence is higher for water access off‐premises. | In 27 of 43 countries, the odds of anemia were significantly higher for children accessing water off‐premises.** |
| Water source | Improved Unimproved Surface |
54.3 54.7 61.6 |
21.7 33.3 53.8 |
In 54% of countries, prevalence is highest for surface water. | In 12 of 45 and 12 of 40 countries, the odds of anemia were significantly higher for unimproved and surface water, respectively, as compared to improved.** |
| Sanitation facility | Improved Unimproved Open |
52.0 56.7 64.8 |
6.5 37.8 66.7 |
In 57% of countries, prevalence decreases from open/no facility to improved facility. | In 18 of 45 and 26 of 40 countries, the odds of anemia were significantly higher for unimproved and open sanitation facilities, respectively.** |
| Sanitation sharing | Not shared Shared |
56.2 52.7 |
64.4 38.3 |
In 64% of countries, prevalence is higher for not shared toilet facility. | Only in one of 44 countries were the odds of anemia significantly higher for children using a shared sanitation facility. In six countries using a shared facility was protective.** |
| Women, 15–49 years old | n = 1,049,827 | n = 46c | Adjusted for age | ||
| Water access | On‐premises Off‐premises |
36.5 39.0 |
27.9 72.1 |
In 72% of countries, prevalence is higher for water access off‐premises. | In 18 of 43 countries, odds of anemia are significantly higher for access off‐premises.** |
| Water source | Improved Unimproved Surface |
37.6 38.0 39.8 |
33.3 31.8 42.1 |
In 42% of countries, the prevalence is highest in the surface water category. | In 10 of 45 and nine of 38 countries, the odds of anemia were significantly higher for unimproved and surface water as compared to improved.** |
| Sanitation facility | Improved Unimproved Open |
36.3 39.0 41.8 |
13.3 22.7 72.5 |
In 58% of countries, prevalence decreases from open/no facility to improved facility. | In 14 of 44 and 24 of 40 countries, the odds of anemia were significantly higher for unimproved and open sanitation facilities, respectively.** |
| Sanitation sharing | Not shared Shared |
37.5 36.9 |
51.1 48.9 |
In 51% of countries, prevalence is higher among not shared facility users. | In no country, there was a significant increase in odds of anemia for women using a shared toilet, but in four countries using a shared toiled showed a significant protective effect. |
This is a crude weighted average using the overall sample size in each country.
For some variables, the total percentage across categories does not add to 100% given differences in the denominators across categories (to account for outliers, a country with a variable category with no data or n < 25 was removed from the pattern calculations).
Angola DHS is not included in the women's database, hence a lower total number of countries for women.
Denominator does not include countries with no data reported/collected or for which the sample size was less than 25.
List of countries included in the denominator can be seen in the forest plots, with ** P < 0.05.