Figure 4.

Applications of liver microphysiological systems (MPS) in the field of clinical pharmacology. To understand clinical drug action, studies in clinical pharmacology aim to characterize drug pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and their relationship to drug effects. For this purpose, different assays can be developed or adapted to liver MPS, and these systems can be used simultaneously to measure, for example, therapeutic and toxic concentrations, characterize metabolism and transporter effects, and evaluate drug–drug interactions. The potential to multiplex different types of measurements in MPS can provide data to support pharmacology models to inform the clinical study design. Pharmacokinetic studies with MPS are also useful for understanding mechanisms that affect drug (and metabolite) concentrations in plasma and liver. [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]