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. 2019 Oct 1;9:14122. doi: 10.1038/s41598-019-50613-2

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© The Author(s) 2019

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Effects of fentanyl on behaviors and sleep/wake states. Behavioural changes associated with systemic injection of the µ-opioid receptor agonist fentanyl. (A) Intraperitoneal injection of saline (control condition) or fentanyl citrate (100 µg · kg⁻¹) while recording neck and diaphragm muscle activities, and electrocortical activity in rats. After initially increasing neck muscle activity, presumably as a result of the acute behavioural response to handling and the injection itself, control injection did not further alter sleep architecture and behaviour. (B) Systemic fentanyl quickly reduced motor activity and induced a persistent sedative state. (C) Fentanyl significantly decreased time spent awake, and increased time spent in a state of sedation, compared to time spent in non-REM sleep in the control condition. The mean duration of episodes of sleep or sedation was significantly increased by fentanyl. Also, arousals occurred significantly less with fentanyl compared to control, and periods of fentanyl-induced sedation were less fragmented by arousal than in control. Dia, diaphragm. EMG, electromyogram. * indicates mean data significantly different than control with P < 0.05. Data are presented as mean ± SEM.