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. 2019 Oct 1;9:14122. doi: 10.1038/s41598-019-50613-2

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© The Author(s) 2019

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fentanyl induces distinct electrocortical changes associated with sedation. (A) Electrocortical power spectral density and power bands were calculated for each epoch. (B) Epochs were then categorized as wakefulness, non-REM sleep, REM sleep, or sedation (following fentanyl 100 µg · kg⁻¹). Spectrograms of electrocortical activity, i.e. the distribution of electrocortical powers from 0 to 50 Hz, show that fentanyl increased electrocortical power between 0 and 10 Hz and decreased power between 20–50 Hz compared to wakefulness. (C) Mean data showed that fentanyl increased significantly δ power but decreased significantly β₂ power compared to wakefulness (n = 7). During non-REM sleep, δ power was higher than in wakefulness (n = 7), whereas β₂ was lower (n = 7). There was no significant difference in the amplitude of neck muscle activity between states. EMG, electromyogram. *Indicate mean data significantly different with P < 0.05. Data are presented as mean ± SEM.