Table 1.

Nanoparticle subtypes and their various interactions with the coagulation system. Different characteristics of potential cancer nanomedicines have specific effects on the coagulation system. Some examples are listed here. Abbreviations: Generation 7 (G7); disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC); cadmium telluride (CdTe); iron oxide nanoparticles (IONP); poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG); gold nanoparticles (GNP); mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSN); trimethylsilane (TMS)

Nanoparticle	Effect on the coagulation system
Dendrimers – Poly(amidoamine), G7, 8.1 nm, cationic)16	Rapid fibrinogen binding and aggregation in vitro (100 µg mL−1) and complete vascular occlusion phenotype in zebrafish (10 ng).
Dendrimers – Poly(amidoamine), G7, 8.1 nm, cationic)[qv: 19b]	DIC in CD‐1 mice at concentrations more than 10 mg kg−1.
Dendrimers – Poly(amidoamine), G7, NH2, and FITC functionalized, 8.1 nm, cationic)20	Significant increase in platelet aggregation in vitro (whole blood) seen with cationic dendrimers but not neutral (—OH) of anionic (—COOH) (100 µg mL−1). Cationic dendrimers could bind directly to platelets and get internalized, leading to changes in cell morphology.
Quantum Dots – CdTe (2.6 and 4.8 nm coated with thioglycolic acid (negative charge) and 2.8 nm coated with cysteamine (positive charge), respectively)21	Significant platelet aggregation in vitro through upregulated P‐selectin and GPIIb/IIIa surface receptors along with MMP‐2 stimulated release (3 × 10−6 m ).
IONP – Maghemite (22 nm, bare)22	Prolonged thrombin time and activated partial thromboplastin time in Sprague Daley rats (0.8 mg kg−1).
IONP – Magnetite (4–6 nm, coated in PEG)23	Thrombotic occlusion in BALB/c mice at 10 µg kg−1 and significant reduction in thrombin time and activated partial thromboplastin time at 0.4 µg mL−1.
GNP – (150 nm, SiO2‐coated GNP and 2–3 nm bare GNP)24	150 nm GNP increased platelet aggregation and 2–3 nm GNP suppressed platelet aggregation in vitro (5 × 109 NP/mL).
GNP – (Colloidal 45 and 85 nm, anionic)25	GNP has high affinity for fibrinogen. Significant reduction in clotting time in vitro in both 45 and 85 nm GNP (5 × 10−9 m).
GNP – (10 and 50 nm, polyphosphonate coated, anionic)26	Reduced clotting time versus PEG and bare GNP in vitro (1.5 × 10−9 m concentration for 50 nm GNP and above 70 × 10−9 m for 10 nm GNP).
GNP – (20 nm, bare, cationic)27	Platelet activation in vitro at 40 × 10−6 m with 20 nm GNP. Platelet activation not seen with larger GNP.
MSN – (60–220 nm, 5–15 nm pours)28	Pour size, but not nanoparticle size, showed an increasing coagulation potential. A larger pore size bound to more FXII, had a stronger reduction in activated partial thromboplastin time in rabbit blood (2 mg MSN) and a higher haemostatic activity.
MSN – (47.9 ± 7.1 nm, coated with PEG and TMS)29	Platelet adhesion and aggregation significantly increased at 100 0 µg mL−1.