Table 2.

Summary of the effective and toxic concentrations of the released biomaterials cues

Released cues	Effective concentrations	Toxic concentrations
Metal ions
Co2+	25 × 10−6 m for HIF stabiliztion in neuroblastoma cells;119 3–12 ppm for HIF activation in endothelial cells77	1–2 × 10−3 m (acute toxic concentrtaion to lung cells120)
Cd2+	7 × 10−6 m for HIF stabiliztion in neuroblastoma cells119	15 × 10−6 m (LD50 for pituitary cells81)
Cu2+	100–200 × 10−6 m for HIF stabiliztion in hepatoma cells121	≈200 × 10−6 m (IC50 for hepatoma cells121)
Regulatory metabolite
Citrate	100–2000 × 10−6 m for promoted osteo‐phenotype progression of hMSCs80	37.3 × 10−3 m (EC50 for hMSCs86); 10.9 × 10−3 m (EC50 for MG6386); 10.5 × 10−3 m (EC50 for 3T386);
Inorganic phosphate	5 × 10−3 m for induced osteogenic differentiation of hMSCs19	Not available
Lactate	0.06–0.17 mg mL−1 for radical scavenging92	20 × 10−3 m (critical toxic concentration for hMSCs122)