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. 2019 Oct 2;9:14171. doi: 10.1038/s41598-019-48898-4

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© The Author(s) 2019

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Comparison of E. coli treated with DPA 154, ciprofloxacin, and polymyxin-B. DPA 154 causes induction of spheroplastic phenotype like polymyxin-B and diminished nuclear morphology consistent with ciprofloxacin. Presence of features of both morphologies provides evidence for a dual mechanism of action for DPA 154. E. coli stained with DAPI (blue) FM4-64 (red) and SytoxG (green) and treated with DPA 154, ciprofloxacin, and polymyxin-B demonstrating membrane permeating effects of DPA 154. DPA 154 induces a high rate of smaller, rounded, SytoxG permeated cells consistent with membrane permeating antibiotics. Ciprofloxacin induces a longer, filamentous phenotype and cells with fewer membrane disruptions as compared to polymyxin-B which induced a majority of small, rounded, membrane permeated cells. Scale bar 1 µm.