Table 4. Associations between selected characteristics and lifestyles and excessive free sugar intake in Japanese children aged 3–6 years (n = 332).

	n of total participants	n with excessive intakea	Crude model	Multivariate modelb
			OR (95% CI)	OR (95% CI)
Children’s characteristics and lifestyles
Sex
Boys	166	37	1.0 (ref)	1.0 (ref)
Girls	166	35	0.93 (0.55, 1.57)	0.91 (0.49, 1.67)
Age, years
3	87	23	1.0 (ref)	1.0 (ref)
4	86	17	0.69 (0.34, 1.40)	0.61 (0.27, 1.38)
5	85	18	0.75 (0.37, 1.51)	0.43 (0.18, 1.04)
6	74	14	0.65 (0.31, 1.38)	0.36 (0.13, 0.94)
Weight statusc
Underweight	35	8	1.06 (0.46, 2.44)	0.83 (0.31, 2.19)
Normal	269	59	1.0 (ref)	1.0 (ref)
Overweight and obese	28	5	0.78 (0.28, 2.12)	0.86 (0.27, 2.72)
Sleeping duration, hours/d
<10	52	15	1.0 (ref)	1.0 (ref)
≥10	280	57	0.63 (0.32, 1.23)	0.41 (0.18, 0.94)
Outdoor playtime, hours/d
<1	85	21	1.0 (ref)	1.0 (ref)
≥1 to <2	158	36	0.90 (0.49, 1.67)	0.79 (0.39, 1.61)
≥2	89	15	0.62 (0.29, 1.30)	0.67 (0.27, 1.62)
Screen time, hours/d
<0.5	44	3	1.0 (ref)	1.0 (ref)
≥0.5 to <1	173	39	3.98 (1.17, 13.54)	3.81 (1.04, 13.98)
≥1	115	30	4.82 (1.39, 16.73)	4.36 (1.16, 16.35)
Maternal characteristics
Age, years
20 to 29	20	4	1.0 (ref)	1.0 (ref)
30 to 39	224	42	0.92 (0.29, 2.90)	2.08 (0.24, 18.31)
≥40	88	26	1.68 (0.51, 5.50)	4.60 (0.45, 46.68)
Weight statusd
Underweight	47	9	0.82 (0.37, 1.79)	0.77 (0.30, 1.95)
Normal	258	58	1.0 (ref)	1.0 (ref)
Overweight and obese	27	5	0.78 (0.28, 2.16)	0.65 (0.21, 1.99)
Educational level, years
≤12	63	15	1.0 (ref)	1.0 (ref)
13 to 14	153	37	1.02 (0.51, 2.03)	1.37 (0.56, 3.37)
≥15	116	20	0.67 (0.31, 1.42)	0.85 (0.32, 2.32)
Occupation
Professional and manager	162	28	1.0 (ref)	1.0 (ref)
Office work, service, and sales	129	34	1.71 (0.97, 3.01)	2.14 (1.08, 4.25)
Manuale	28	6	1.31 (0.49, 3.51)	1.53 (0.47, 4.97)
Unemployed	13	4	2.13 (0.61, 7.40)	2.50 (0.60, 10.37)
Current smoking status
No	308	65	1.0 (ref)	1.0 (ref)
Yes	24	7	1.54 (0.61, 3.87)	1.78 (0.58, 5.44)
Paternal characteristics
Age, years
20 to 29	12	3	1.0 (ref)	1.0 (ref)
30 to 39	198	38	0.71 (0.18, 2.76)	0.42 (0.03, 5.39)
≥40	122	31	1.02 (0.26, 4.02)	0.52 (0.04, 7.70)
Weight statusd
Underweight	12	3	1.23 (0.32, 4.73)	0.81 (0.18, 3.70)
Normal	235	50	1.0 (ref)	1.0 (ref)
Overweight and obese	85	19	1.07 (0.59, 1.94)	0.74 (0.37, 1.49)
Educational level, years
≤12	113	23	1.0 (ref)	1.0 (ref)
13 to 14	76	20	1.40 (0.70, 2.78)	1.30 (0.57, 2.95)
≥15	143	29	1.00 (0.54, 1.84)	1.36 (0.57, 3.23)
Occupation
Professional and manager	148	34	1.0 (ref)	1.0 (ref)
Office work and service/sales	90	17	0.78 (0.41, 1.50)	0.58 (0.26, 1.25)
Manuale	92	21	0.99 (0.53, 1.84)	1.01 (0.48, 2.15)
Unemployed	2	0	—	—
Current smoking status
No	186	43	1.0 (ref)	1.0 (ref)
Yes	146	29	0.82 (0.49, 1.40)	0.74 (0.39, 1.42)
Household’s’ characteristics
Living with grandparent(s)
No	272	56	1.0 (ref)	1.0 (ref)
Yes	60	16	1.40 (0.74, 2.67)	1.95 (0.90, 4.19)
Number of siblings
0	54	14	1.0 (ref)	1.0 (ref)
1	182	39	0.78 (0.39, 1.58)	1.42 (0.61, 3.28)
≥2	96	19	0.71 (0.32, 1.55)	0.78 (0.29, 2.06)
Income
Low (<2,380,000 yen/year)	91	25	1.0 (ref)	1.0 (ref)
Middle (≥2,380,000 to <3,340,000 yen/year)	144	28	0.64 (0.34, 1.18)	0.48 (0.22, 1.01)
High (≥3,340,000 yen/year)	97	19	0.64 (0.33, 1.27)	0.45 (0.19, 1.07)

CI, confidence interval; OR, odds ratio; Ref., reference standard.

^aDefined based on percentage of energy intake from free sugar according to World Health Organization recommendations¹⁴: ≥10% for excessive intake.

^bAll the variables listed were entered into the model simultaneously.

^cDefined according to the International Obesity Task Force age- and sex-specific body mass index (calculated as kg/m²) cutoffs, which correspond to an adult body mass index of <18.5 for underweight, ≥18.5 to <25 for normal, and ≥25 for overweight and obese subjects.⁵¹

^dDefined based on body mass index (calculated as kg/m²) according to World Health Organization recommendations⁵³: <18.5 for underweight, ≥18.5 to <25 for normal, and ≥25 for overweight and obese subjects.

^eIncluding farming/forestry/fishery, transportation, labour services, and other.