Table 1.
Summary of natural and experimental models of focal and generalized epilepsy in NHP.
| Model | Induction of Seizures or Epilepsy | Clinical Manifestations | EEG Findings | Applications | Human Relevance |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Experimental Models of Generalized Epilepsy | |||||
| Acute absence seizures in rhesus monkeys37 | Bilateral cortical application of conjugated estrogens | Absence, myoclonic and GTC seizures | GSWC (3 Hz) | Seizure mechanisms | Absence epilepsy |
| Chronic absence epilepsy in rhesus monkeys38 | Bihemispheric pial application of cobalt powder | Absence, in some cases GTC seizures | GSWC | Electroclinical monitoring of epilepsy | Absence epilepsy |
| Marmoset model of absence SE39 | Subcutaneous injection of γ‐butyrolactone | Absence‐like behavioral arrest, orofacial myoclonus, and LOA | GSWC (3 Hz) | Antiepileptic drug trials, seizure mechanisms. | Absence epilepsy |
| Baboon of convulsive status epilepticus6 | Intravenous bicuculline, gallamine, allylglycine, pentylenetetrazol | Generalized convulsive SE | Generalized SE patterns | Mechanisms of SE induced brain injury | Complications of SE |
| Experimental Models of Focal Epilepsy | |||||
| Focal epilepsy in rhesus monkeys40 | Sensorimotor application of Al(OH)3 gel | Focal motor seizures | Focal spikes or SWC (mainly at injection site) | Mechanisms of focal SE | Epilepsia partialis continua |
| Focal epilepsy in rhesus monkeys7 | Subpial (pre- and postcentral gyrus) injection of Al(OH)3 | Focal motor with secondary GTC seizures | Focal spikes and sharp waves | Epileptogenesis model, mechanisms, anti-seizure drug and VNS trials | Posttraumatic |
| Temporal lobe epilepsy in rhesus monkeys4 | Al(OH)3 injections intohippocampus, amygdala, entorhinal cortices, and temporal neocortex | Focal dyscognitive with secondary GTC seizures, evolving to SE | Focal ictal and interictal spikes with eventual propagation ipsi- & contralaterally | Epileptogenesis model, mechanisms and anti-seizure drug and antiepileptogenic interventions | Temporal lobe epilepsy |
| Temporal lobe epilepsy in pig-tailed monkeys5 | SE induced by entorhinal infusions of bicuculline | Focal SE, late focal dyscognitive seizures | Focal SE, focal seizures and spikes | Epileptogenesis model, mechanisms and anti-seizure drug and antiepileptogenic interventions | Temporal lobe epilepsy |
| Cingulate kindling in baboons41 | Electrical kindling of cingulate | Focal SE, late focal seizures with secondary GTC seizures | Focal SE, repetitive focal and bilateral spikes | Epileptogenesis model | Cingulate epilepsy |
| Amygdaloid kindling in rhesus monkeys42 |
Electrical kindling of amygdala | Focal SE, late focal seizures with secondary GTC seizures | Focal SE, focal seizures and spikes | Epileptogenesis model | Temporal lobe epilepsy |
|
Coriaria lactone rhesus monkey model of TLE43 |
Repeated intramuscular Coriaria lactone injection | Autonomic changes, eventual GTC seizures | Focal seizures, spikes and PSP, with bilateral propagation | Epileptogenesis model, mechanisms and anti-seizure drug and antiepileptogenic interventions | Temporal lobe epilepsy |
| Pilocarpine marmoset model of epilepsy44 |
SE induced by intraperitoneal pilocarpine injections | SE with late focal dyscognitive seizures | Focal seizures, spikes, with bilateral propagation | Epileptogenesis model, mechanisms and anti-seizure drug and antiepileptogenic interventions | Temporal lobe epilepsy |
| Macaque model of temporal lobe epilepsy45 | Kainic acid injections intrahippocampally | Focal motor and GTC seizures | Focal seizures, spikes, with bilateral propagation | Epileptogenesis model, mechanisms and anti-seizure drug and antiepileptogenic interventions | Temporal lobe epilepsy |
| Natural Model of Genetic Generalized Epilepsy | |||||
| Genetic generalized epilepsy in baboons11,13, 15, 18 | Spontaneous seizuresor induced by photic stimulation | Generalized myoclonic, absence and GTC seizures | Generalized ictal patterns, GSWC and generalized PSP on scEEG, (generalized & multifocal on Ic EEG) | Mechanisms, anti-seizure drug and VNS trials, cognitive and behavioral effects of VNS and anti-seizure drugs, BOLD effects of anti-seizure drugs | Idiopathic generalized epilepsy (JME), photosensitive epilepsy |
GTC generalized tonic-clonic, GSWC generalized spike-and-wave complexes, SE status epilepticus Al(OH)3 aluminium hydroxide, PSP polyspikes, ScEEG scalp EEG, ICEEG intracranial EEG.