Neoantigen peptide vaccines, soluble23–25,27,29,30
|
High specificity for individual tumours Applicable to a wide variety of cancers with high mutational load Demonstrated synergy with immune-checkpoint blockade |
Imprecise neoantigen prediction tools Time-consuming process for cGMP production Antigen instability or insolubility Relatively weak T-cell immunity elicited |
Neoantigen peptide vaccines, delivery via nanoparticles16,47,52,56,57
|
Enhanced antigen stability and solubility Enables the co-delivery of neoantigens and adjuvants to antigen-presenting cells Elicits strong T-cell responses Synergies with immune-checkpoint blockade |
Unique formulation parameters required for each neoantigen-nanoparticle strategy Complex cGMP manufacturing of the nanoparticles Concerns about biocompatibility and safety |
Gene-based vaccines26,28,85
|
Efficient antigen expression and immune activation Synergies with immune-checkpoint blockade |
Instability in vitro and in vivo Low transfection efficiency in vivo Unique formulation parameters required for delivery Complex cGMP manufacturing |
DC-based vaccines90,93
|
Based on patient-derived cells Elicits tumour-specific immune responses |
Time-consuming-manufacturing process Highly variable yield of antigen-presenting cells No demonstration of complete remission to date Inefficient cellular trafficking to lymph nodes |
Adoptive T-cell therapies113,121,122
|
Based on patient-derived cells Infusion of large numbers of T cells feasible Established procedures for engineering CAR-T cells Effective targeting of tumours |
Time-consuming manufacturing process Problems in maintaining T-cell viability Insufficient proliferation and tumour-infiltration of T cells in vivo Limited efficacy when targeting shared antigens |
Theranostic nanoparticles124,127,138,144
|
Site-specific delivery and release of therapeutics Increased permeability of target tissue for efficient delivery Tumour targeting in real time |
Costly Requires bulky equipment Concerns about biocompatibility and safety |
Photothermal- photodynamic and radiation therapies14,17,154–156
|
Minimally invasive Effective in large tumours May trigger the release of tumour antigens and elicit endogenous immune responses |
Requires combination with other agents Ineffective for metastatic tumours Concerns about biocompatibility and safety |