Table 1.

Immune stimulatory effects of Newcastle disease virus (NDV) in non-permissive hosts.

Induction of post-oncolytic immunity

Activation of natural killer (NK) cells

Activation of monocytes and macrophages

Activation of dendritic cells

Polarization of dendritic cells (DCs) towards DC1

Induction of a strong type I interferon response

IFN-α mediating epitope cross-presentation by DCs

IFN-α mediating a link between innate and adaptive immunity

IFN-α being essential for the generation of cytotoxic T cells (CTLs)

IFN-α protecting T cells against attack by NK cells

NDV exerting co-stimulatory effects on CD4+ and CD8+ T cells