Table 3.
General and disease-specific risk factors for cervicofacial actinomycosis [1,5,11,19,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,41,42,43].
| General | Disease-Specific |
|---|---|
| Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) infection or manifest AIDS | Erupting secondary teeth |
| Hematological malignancies or solid tumors | Poor dental hygiene |
| Organ transplantation (especially in case of the kidneys and lungs) | Dental caries |
| Use of monoclonal antibodies (e.g., anti-tumor necrosis-α-inhibitors, infliximab, etanercept) | Gingivitis |
| Cancer chemotherapy | Mucositis |
| Corticosteroid use | Dental extraction |
| Malnutrition | Introduction of dental implants |
| Diabetes | Cervicofacial surgery |
| Alcoholism | Traumatic injury |
| Smoking and/or inhalation of particles | Bisphosphonate therapy |
| Low socio-economic status | Radiation therapy |
| Seizure disorders | |
| Crohn’s disease | |
| Hereditary diseases (e.g., hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia, chronic granulomatous disease) | |
| Use of non-steroid anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) |