Table 2. IRM practices in public health and agriculture.
| Public Health (Vector Control) | Agriculture (Crop Protection) |
|---|---|
| Insecticides | |
| Very few AIs/modes of action | Many different AIs/modes of action |
| High residual activity formulations (high selection pressure) | Low residual activity formulations (adjustable selection pressure) |
| Resistance diagnosis/monitoring | |
| WHO/CDC bioassays: no direct link with impact of resistance on efficiency | IRAC bioassays: direct association with field application rates and control failure |
| Advanced biochemical/molecular diagnostics | Simple molecular diagnostics |
| Risk assessment | |
| Researchers, WHO | Industries–regulatory bodies: test methods, in advance monitoring, resistance management guidance |
| IRM | |
| Delayed implementation of IRM: (Researchers, WHO, national control programs). |
Early implementation of IRM: Plans in place (guidelines) before use (industry, regulatory bodies, researchers) |
| Rotations of limited number of AIs Mixtures rarely used Mosaics rarely used |
Rotations of large number of AIs Mixtures Mosaics Restricted number of applications per period, per crop, per pest, per region Refugee crops |
| General guidelines, but limited evidence-based local/regional guidelines | No common strategies globally, but several local/regional robust guidelines |
| IVM/IPM | |
| Environmental management, biological control, larvicides, alternative tools; Limited validated/WHO recommended options |
Resistant varieties, biological control, GMOs, alternative products (green chemistry), etc. |
| Communication of IR data | |
| Researchers, stakeholders, WHO, industry (limited) | Industry, end users, researchers |
| Publications and reports Vector control decision support system Disease data management system IR Mapper |
Publications and reports Global Pesticide Resistance Database (Michigan), IRAC |
Abbreviations: AI, active ingredient; CDC, US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; GMO, genetically modified organism; IPM, integrated pest management; IR, insecticide resistance; IRAC, Insecticide Resistance Action Committee; IRM, insecticide resistance management; IVM, integrated vector management; WHO, World Health Organization