Table 2.
Concentrations of biomarkers by frequency of sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) intake among participants free of diabetes and CVD in the Nurses’ Health Study (n 8492)*
(Least-squares means and 95 % confidence intervals)
| Frequency of SSB intake | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Never or almost never | Less than once per week | Once to twice per week | Three to six times per week | Once per day or more | |||||||
| Biomarker concentrations | Mean | 95 % CI | Mean | 95% CI | Mean | 95 % CI | Mean | 95 % CI | Mean | 95% CI | Pfor trend |
| Hepatic biomarkers | |||||||||||
| Fetuin-A (μg/ml) | |||||||||||
| n | 509 | 399 | 199 | 234 | 68 | ||||||
| Model 1 | 459·3 | 4·7 | 465·0 | 5·3 | 462·1 | 7·5 | 460·9 | 6·9 | 492·4 | 12·8 | 0·05 |
| Model 2 | 459·2 | 5·3 | 462·2 | 5·6 | 459·4 | 7·7 | 457·4 | 7·2 | 496·6 | 13·5 | 0·04 |
| Alanine transaminase (U/l) | |||||||||||
| n | 456 | 382 | 187 | 222 | 71 | ||||||
| Model 1 | 19·7 | 0·4 | 18·9 | 0·5 | 18·0 | 0·7 | 19·1 | 0·6 | 19·0 | 1·1 | 0·57 |
| Model 2 | 19·6 | 0·5 | 18·7 | 0·5 | 17·8 | 0·7 | 19 | 0·6 | 18·8 | 1·1 | 0·71 |
| γ-Glutamyl transferase (U/l) | |||||||||||
| n | 456 | 380 | 187 | 222 | 71 | ||||||
| Model 1 | 24·1 | 1·3 | 22·9 | 1·4 | 22·2 | 2·0 | 23·6 | 1·9 | 23·7 | 3·3 | 0·99 |
| Model 2 | 24·0 | 1·5 | 23·3 | 1·5 | 22·8 | 2·0 | 24·0 | 1·9 | 24·1 | 3·4 | 0·84 |
| Lipid biomarkers | |||||||||||
| TAG (mmol/l) | |||||||||||
| n | 1158 | 953 | 446 | 590 | 182 | ||||||
| Model 1 | 2·65 | 0·04 | 2·75 | 0·04 | 2·71 | 0·06 | 2·92 | 0·06 | 3·10 | 0·11 | <0·0001 |
| Model 2 | 2·69 | 0·04 | 2·79 | 0·05 | 2·73 | 0·06 | 2·93 | 0·06 | 3·05 | 0·11 | 0·0003 |
| Total cholesterol:HDL-cholesterol ratio | |||||||||||
| n | 1098 | 808 | 372 | 447 | 122 | ||||||
| Model 1 | 3·76 | 0·04 | 3·77 | 0·05 | 3·72 | 0·07 | 3·98 | 0·07 | 4·38 | 0·13 | <0·0001 |
| Model 2 | 3·91 | 0·09 | 3·92 | 0·09 | 3·81 | 0·1 | 4·01 | 0·09 | 4·31 | 0·14 | 0·002 |
| HDL-cholesterol (mmol/l) | |||||||||||
| n | 1157 | 854 | 394 | 488 | 143 | ||||||
| Model 1 | 1·56 | 0·01 | 1·53 | 0·01 | 1·56 | 0·02 | 1·46 | 0·02 | 1·36 | 0·03 | <0·0001 |
| Model 2 | 1·50 | 0·02 | 1·49 | 0·02 | 1·53 | 0·03 | 1·46 | 0·02 | 1·40 | 0·03 | 0·003 |
| LDL-cholesterol (mmol/l) | |||||||||||
| n | 650 | 467 | 213 | 276 | 91 | ||||||
| Model 1 | 3·20 | 0·04 | 3·27 | 0·04 | 3·33 | 0·06 | 3·25 | 0·06 | 3·15 | 0·09 | 0·64 |
| Model 2 | 3·20 | 0·05 | 3·26 | 0·05 | 3·31 | 0·07 | 3·23 | 0·06 | 3·03 | 0·09 | 0·13 |
| Total cholesterol (mmol/l) | |||||||||||
| n | 1504 | 1141 | 511 | 681 | 197 | ||||||
| Model 1 | 5·53 | 0·03 | 5·50 | 0·03 | 5·49 | 0·04 | 5·50 | 0·04 | 5·57 | 0·07 | 0·73 |
| Model 2 | 5·53 | 0·04 | 5·53 | 0·04 | 5·53 | 0·05 | 5·53 | 0·04 | 5·60 | 0·08 | 0·42 |
| Inflammatory biomarkers | |||||||||||
| C-reactive protein (mg/l) | |||||||||||
| n | 2127 | 1678 | 741 | 1028 | 313 | ||||||
| Model 1 | 1·66 | 0·04 | 1·65 | 0·04 | 1·66 | 0·06 | 1·83 | 0·06 | 2·22 | 0·13 | <0·0001 |
| Model 2 | 1·69 | 0·05 | 1·74 | 0·05 | 1·73 | 0·07 | 1·8 | 0·06 | 2·14 | 0·12 | 0·0002 |
| Intracellular adhesion molecule 1 (ng/ml) | |||||||||||
| n | 812 | 656 | 288 | 402 | 113 | ||||||
| Model 1 | 225·6 | 1·9 | 228·1 | 2·2 | 234·7 | 3·3 | 232·1 | 2·8 | 242·4 | 5·5 | 0·002 |
| Model 2 | 235·7 | 2·3 | 237·1 | 2·3 | 243·6 | 3·4 | 239·8 | 3·0 | 247·8 | 5·6 | 0·04 |
| Vascular cell adhesion protein 1 (ng/mL) | |||||||||||
| n | 460 | 341 | 138 | 214 | 52 | ||||||
| Model 1 | 588·6 | 6·5 | 595·9 | 7·6 | 607·4 | 12·1 | 595·6 | 9·6 | 640·0 | 20·5 | 0·03 |
| Model 2 | 587 | 6·9 | 591·6 | 7·5 | 608 | 12·1 | 587·1 | 9·9 | 635·7 | 20·9 | 0·08 |
| Metabolic biomarkers | |||||||||||
| Adiponectin (μg/ml) | |||||||||||
| n | 2254 | 1711 | 739 | 1021 | 283 | ||||||
| Model 1 | 11·3 | 0·1 | 10·9 | 0·1 | 10·5 | 0·2 | 10·1 | 0·2 | 9·3 | 0·3 | <0·0001 |
| Model 2 | 11·0 | 0·2 | 10·6 | 0·2 | 10·3 | 0·2 | 10·0 | 0·2 | 9·5 | 0·3 | <0·0001 |
| Insulin (μU/ml) | |||||||||||
| n | 912 | 777 | 356 | 526 | 154 | ||||||
| Model 1 | 4·51 | 0·11 | 4·92 | 0·13 | 5·03 | 0·19 | 5·59 | 0·18 | 5·32 | 0·30 | 0·0002 |
| Model 2 | 4·47 | 0·12 | 4·94 | 0·13 | 4·94 | 0·18 | 5·43 | 0·17 | 5·0 | 0·27 | 0·009 |
| HbA1C (%) | |||||||||||
| n | 1627 | 1204 | 563 | 738 | 226 | ||||||
| Model 1 | 5·37 | 0·01 | 5·38 | 0·01 | 5·40 | 0·01 | 5·41 | 0·01 | 5·41 | 0·02 | 0·006 |
| Model 2 | 5·41 | 0·01 | 5·4 | 0·01 | 5·42 | 0·01 | 5·43 | 0·01 | 5·42 | 0·02 | 0·19 |
Biomarker sample sizes vary: fetuin-A (n 1409), alanine transaminase (n 1318), γ-glutamyl transferase (n 1316), TAG (n 3329), total cholesterol:HDL-cholesterol ratio (n 2847), HDL-cholesterol (n 3036), LDL-cholesterol (n 1697), total cholesterol (n 4034), C-reactive protein (n 5887), intracellular adhesion molecule 1 (n 2271), vascular cell adhesion protein 1 (n 1205), adiponectin (n 6008), insulin (n 2725), HbA1c (n 4358). Values were determined using general linear models. Model 1 was adjusted for age at blood draw, fasting status (yes/no) and time of blood draw (blood collection cycle 1/2). Model 2 was adjusted for the variables in model 1 plus smoking status (current/former/never), alcohol intake (continuous), physical activity (tertile), total energy intake (tertile), Alternate Healthy Eating Index score excluding SSB (tertile), postmenopausal hormone use (yes/no) and BMI (continuous).