Table 2.

Initiatives to improve biosecurity in different poultry sectors.

Programs	Description	Results
Nationwide mass media campaigns Duration: 2007–2008 Implemented by: GoB, WHO, FAO, OIE, UNICEF, BRAC, CARE, USAID, AI.COMM, icddr,b, other NGOs Targeted for: All poultry sectors	Safe behaviors, 10-step recommendations (including basic hygiene messages, e.g., using masks, handwashing, and not touching sick poultry) were disseminated through radio, television, newspapers, public meetings, folk songs and plays, rickshaws and vans equipped with megaphones, posters, training manuals [46,50,51]	70% backyard and 90% commercial poultry farmers and 65% live bird handlers were aware of good biosecurity; 80% targeted journalists accepted good reporting practices; however, adoption of recommended practices remained poor in all sectors; 84% of HPAI outbreaks involving commercial farms indicated a disconnect between the KAP and practice as well as persisting weak biosecurity BPMC: some improvements in the structural biosecurity of the LBM and the farms under intervention was reported, however, operational biosecurity was poor for both the markets and the farms, and biosafety practices were almost absent [26,48,49,55,56,57]
Avian Influenza Preparedness and Response Project Duration: 2007–2012 Implemented by: DLS, Department of Mass Communications, Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock (MoFL), FAO Targeted for: All poultry sectors	Public awareness and risk communication campaigns conducted in 20 sub-districts in 20 districts using film shows, folk songs, school programs, distribution of leaflets, posters and banners; DLS trained poultry farmers, veterinarians, paraprofessionals, community health workers, media persons, news reporters, and students; piloted Biosecure Poultry Market Chains (BPMC) in 9 LBMs, 18 broiler and layer farms, among 324 poultry farmers, 180 LBM workers, 90 middlemen/transporters, and 1260 poultry chain stakeholders in 9 of the districts at highest risk of HPAI, to establish good biosecurity practices along the entire poultry value chain [26]
Teacher training program for AI outbreak reporting Duration: 2009 Implemented by: FAO, DLS Targeted for: All poultry sectors	One-day workshops conducted in three selected sub-districts involving school and madrassa teachers on disease reporting and the risks and prevention of HPAI [52]	Not available
Behavior change pilot intervention Duration: 2009–2010 Implemented by: icddr,b Targeted for: Backyard poultry raisers	Context-appropriate behavior change recommendations piloted among the rural raisers in one community in each of the two districts [44]	Awareness increased but behavior remained unchanged; reasons for non-compliance: perceived absence of AIV in raisers’ flocks, low-risk of AIV, cost, inconvenience, personal discomfort, fear of being rebuked or ridiculed, and doubt about the necessity of the intervention [44]
Safe poultry slaughter pilot intervention Duration: 2014 Implemented by: icddr,b Targeted for: Rural communities	A safe poultry slaughtering method piloted in two rural communities in a district in order to reduce human exposure to airborne virus by performing poultry slaughtering in a closed container [53,58]	The recommendations were found to be acceptable and feasible for the villagers with minor modification [53]
Upazila-to-Community (U2C) Duration: 2017–till date Implemented by: DLS, FAO Targeted for: Backyard and commercial poultry sectors	Targeted to cover 496 sub-districts; avails veterinary services to rural communities to improve livestock production and disease control, increasing resilience to emerging disease events [54]	The program is still ongoing, no evaluation/result available
Program on farm biosecurity Duration: 2005–2006 Implemented by: GoB, DLS, BRAC and other NGOs Targeted for: Commercial poultry sector	Training on farm biosecurity (i.e., the prevention and control of AIV) provided along with gloves and disinfectants to 33 breeders/hatchery farm managers and 340 large commercial farms; 150,000 small-scale farmers trained across the country [46]	Not available
Stamping Out Pandemic and Avian Influenza (STOP AI) Duration: 2008–2010 Implemented by: USAID, FAO, city corporation, DLS Targeted for: Commercial poultry and LBM sectors	Different sectors were mobilized to improve biosecurity; biosecurity training implemented for veterinarians and livestock science graduates; 7 LBM training programs implemented in 5 divisions; cleaning and disinfection activities piloted in 2 LBMs; biosecurity improvement models (infrastructure improvements, e.g., farm boundary, footbath, biogas and compost plants) implemented in 12 commercial farms in a district and 2 LBMs in 2 districts; cleaning and disinfection activities implemented in 24 LBMs within and outside Dhaka through training, technical support, financial assistance for infrastructure renovations, renovation of the water supply, the addition of a biogas facility for proper waste disposal, and a slaughter house [54,59,60,61]	Awareness and precautionary practices increased; substantially fewer HPAI outbreaks were reported; no clusters of infection were found in the intervention farms/LBMs; the effect of the intervention on the incidence of disease was limited to a few months after completion—indicating the challenges of sustaining the progress; despite increased biosecurity, no significant reduction in virus circulation was found in the FAO-intervened markets compared to the non-intervened ones [60,62]
Community-engaged biosecurity (CEB) model Duration: 2016–2018 Implemented by: Bangladesh Agricultural University (BAU) Targeted for: Commercial poultry sector	From each of the two sub-districts, training of trainers (ToT) was provided to 50 lead farmers, who trained their fellow farmers; regular farm visits by community animal health workers were made to monitor compliance [63]	The program is still ongoing, no evaluation/result available
Biosecurity program in the LBMs Duration: 2007–2008 Implemented by: BRAC, IFC, SEDF Targeted for: LBM sector	A series of trainings and practical demonstrations on biosecurity and the use of personal protective equipment (PPE), along with gloves, masks, disinfectants, and small spray machines, were provided in retail and wholesale shops from 38 LBMs of Dhaka [46]	Not available
The LBM C4D initiative Duration: 2012–2013 Implemented by: UNICEF, GoB Targeted for: LBM sector	Intervention implemented in 16 LBMs to improve the knowledge and threat perception of AIV, as well as the bio-security practices of the poultry workers [56]	Despite an improved knowledge level, no significant change observed in biosecurity measures after the intervention; major barriers: lack of proper infrastructure to adopt the recommendations, concern of negative financial impact, lack of self-risk perception [56]
Piloting workstations for poultry workers Duration: 2008–2012 Implemented by: icddr,b Targeted for: LBM sector	Portable workstations (including a worktop and handwashing facility with soapy water) were designed and piloted in 13 shops in a LBM to reduce the risk of environmental contamination and improve handwashing practices [64,65]	The workstations were acceptable, functional, improved handwashing practices and the use of clean water; soapy water was effective in removing influenza viruses from poultry workers’ hands; however, handwashing decreased over time; major barriers: the difficulty to manage the increased cost for water and detergent by shops and the inability to frequently wash hands during busy hours [64,65]
Use of wooden shelters Duration: Not available Implemented by: BRAC Targeted for: Backyard poultry sector	Moveable wooden poultry shelters were developed and promoted to help the smallholder farmers to maintain bio-security measures at low costs [46]	Not available