Fig. 4.

Effect sizes of defaunation on forest regeneration by seed dispersal syndrome. All studies were observed. The number of pairwise comparisons between high fauna and low fauna treatments per category is reported in parentheses, mean standardised effect size (Hedges’ g) is indicated by the bold vertical line in the centre of the coloured box, and 95% confidence intervals are represented by the width of the coloured box. Asterisks (*) denote categories where the confidence intervals do not overlap zero, indicating a significant effect (Hedges’ g). Please note that the figure shows the impact of defaunation on the regeneration of woody plants with different dispersal syndromes; a negative effect size means that defaunation is having a detrimental impact on regeneration of defined groups