Table 1.
Associations between maternal 25(OH)D3 concentrations in pregnancy and neurodevelopmental outcomes.
| Domains | Instruments | Regions | Levels (n) | Unadjusted | Minimally adjustedc | Fully adjustedd |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ASD symptoms | CAST-5ya (coef, 95% CI) | V, S, A, G | Continuous (per 10 ng/mL) (1510) | −0.14 (−0.29, 0.01) | −0.10 (−0.25, 0.04) | −0.02 (−0.17, 0.12) |
| <20 ng/mL (259) | Reference | |||||
| 20–29.9 ng/mL (534) | −0.23 (−0.72, 0.26) | −0.25 (−0.72, 0.22) | −0.14 (−0.61, 0.32) | |||
| ≥30 ng/mL (717) | −0.54 (−1.01, −0.07) | −0.48 (−0.94, −0.02) | −0.26 (−0.71, 0.19) | |||
| Social competence | CPSCS-5ya (coef, 95% CI) | V, S, A, G, M | Continuous (per 10 ng/mL) (1481) | 1.22 (0.63, 1.81) | 0.97 (0.39, 1.55) | 0.77 (0.19, 1.35) |
| <20 ng/mL (279) | Reference | |||||
| 20–29.9 ng/mL (538) | 2.09 (0.33, 3.84) | 1.97 (0.24, 3.69) | 1.42 (−0.29, 3.12) | |||
| ≥30 ng/mL (664) | 3.42 (1.72, 5.12) | 2.84 (1.16, 4.52) | 2.14 (0.47, 3.82) | |||
| Total behavioural problems | SDQ-5ya (coef, 95% CI) | G | Continuous (per 10 ng/mL) (263) | −0.24 (−0.78, 0.30) | — | −0.01 (−0.53, 0.51) |
| <20 ng/mL (39) | Reference | |||||
| 20–29.9 ng/mL (124) | −1.65 (−3.27, −0.03) | — | −0.90 (−2.44, 0.63) | |||
| ≥30 ng/mL (100) | −1.02 (−2.70, 0.65) | — | −0.13 (−1.75, 1.48) | |||
| Total behavioural problems | SDQ-8ya (coef, 95% CI) | V, S, A, G | Continuous (per 10 ng/mL) (1622) | −0.08 (−0.32, 0.15) | −0.13 (−0.37, 0.10) | 0.00 (−0.23, 0.24) |
| <20 ng/mL (288) | Reference | |||||
| 20–29.9 ng/mL (576) | −0.44 (−1.16, 0.29) | −0.51 (−1.24, 0.22) | −0.31 (−1.02, 0.41) | |||
| ≥30 ng/mL (758) | −0.44 (−1.14, 0.26) | −0.60 (−1.30, 0.11) | −0.22 (−0.91, 0.48) | |||
| Total behavioural problems | CBCL-8yb (IRR, 95% CI) | V, S, G | Continuous (per 10 ng/mL) (1206) | 0.98 (0.95, 1.02) | 0.98 (0.94, 1.02) | 1.00 (0.96, 1.04) |
| <20 ng/mL (202) | Reference | |||||
| 20–29.9 ng/mL (415) | 0.86 (0.76, 0.97) | 0.87 (0.77, 0.99) | 0.90 (0.79, 1.01) | |||
| ≥30 ng/mL (589) | 0.92 (0.82, 1.04) | 0.91 (0.81, 1.02) | 0.96 (0.85, 1.07) | |||
| ADHD symptoms | CPRS-8yb (IRR, 95% CI) | V, S, A, G | Continuous (per 10 ng/mL) (1622) | 1.01 (0.97, 1.05) | 1.00 (0.96, 1.04) | 1.01 (0.97, 1.06) |
| <20 ng/mL (288) | Reference | |||||
| 20–29.9 ng/mL (576) | 0.93 (0.82, 1.06) | 0.93 (0.81, 1.05) | 0.94 (0.83, 1.07) | |||
| ≥30 ng/mL (758) | 0.96 (0.85, 1.09) | 0.94 (0.83, 1.06) | 0.98 (0.86, 1.11) | |||
| Total behavioural problems | SDQ-14ya (coef, 95% CI) | M | Continuous (per 10 ng/mL) (198) | −0.46 (−1.13, 0.21) | — | −0.27 (−0.95, 0.41) |
| <20 ng/mL (34) | Reference | |||||
| 20–29.9 ng/mL (82) | −0.81 (−2.59, 0.97) | — | −0.43 (−2.23, 1.37) | |||
| ≥30 ng/mL (82) | −1.13 (−2.91, 0.66) | — | −0.64 (−2.45, 1.17) | |||
| Total behavioural problems | SDQ-18ya (coef, 95% CI) | M | Continuous (per 10 ng/mL) (149) | −0.03 (−0.80, 0.73) | — | 0.09 (−0.69, 0.86) |
| <20 ng/mL (24) | Reference | |||||
| 20–29.9 ng/mL (58) | 1.11 (−0.96, 3.18) | — | 1.48 (−0.61, 3.58) | |||
| ≥30 ng/mL (67) | 0.54 (−1.49, 2.57) | — | 0.92 (−1.16, 2.99) | |||
| ADHD symptoms | CPRS-18yb (IRR, 95% CI) | M | Continuous (per 10 ng/mL) (151) | 0.96 (0.81, 1.14) | — | 0.96 (0.80, 1.14) |
| <20 ng/mL (25) | Reference | |||||
| 20–29.9 ng/mL (60) | 1.45 (0.93, 2.27) | — | 1.33 (0.84, 2.10) | |||
| ≥30 ng/mL (66) | 1.22 (0.79, 1.90) | — | 1.13 (0.72, 1.77) | |||
Domains: ADHD = Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder; ASD = Autism Spectrum Disorder. Instruments: CAST = Childhood Autism Spectrum Test; CBCL = Child Behaviour Checklist; CPRS = Conners’ Parent Rating Scale-Revised (short form); CPSCS = California Preschool Social Competence Scale; SDQ = Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. Regions: A = Asturias; G = Gipuzkoa; M = Menorca; S = Sabadell; V = Valencia. aLinear regression model; bNegative binomial regression model; cAdjusted for region; dAdjusted for region, maternal age, maternal education level, maternal occupation, maternal country of birth, maternal smoking during the 1st trimester of pregnancy, partner smoking at home during the 1st trimester of pregnancy. Multiple imputation and inverse probability weighting were applied. Bold = p < 0.05.