Table 1.
Summary of studies on precocious environmental factors.
| Family related | Study design | Patients (n)/ recruitment age | Trial duration | Outcomes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cohen et al. (16) | Longitudinal study; Community population | 680; 9–18 years |
22 years | Lower SES predicted BPD symptoms and effect magnitude remained stable over time |
| Crawford et al. (17) | Longitudinal study; Community population | 766; At birth |
20 years | Lower SES predicted BPD symptoms |
| Winsper et al. (18) | Longitudinal study; Community population | 6050; At birth |
12 years | Family adversity predicted BPD symptoms |
| Stepp et al. (19) | Longitudinal study; Community high-risk | 2282 girls; 14–19 years |
14 years | Receipt of public assistance predicted BPD symptoms across adolescence |
| Stepp et al. (19,) | Longitudinal study; Community high-risk | 2212 girls; 14–17 years |
4 years | Receipt of public assistance predicted BPD symptoms; Caregiver ASPD and depression predicted BPD (bivariate analyses only) |
| Stepp et al. (21) | Longitudinal study; Community high-risk | 113 girls; 5 years |
10–13 years | Family adversity predicted increases in BPD symptoms |
| Barnow et al. (24) | Longitudinal study; Community population | 286; 10 years |
5 years | Maternal BPD predicted offspring BPD symptoms at 15 years old. |
| Reinelt et al. (26) | Longitudinal study; Community population | 295; 10 years |
5 years | Maternal BPD symptoms predicted offspring BPD symptoms at 15 years old and this association was mediated by maladaptive parenting style/behavior |
| Stepp et al. (25) | Longitudinal study; Community population | 816; 14–18 years |
16 years | Maternal BPD and paternal substance use predicted offspring BPD symptoms at 24. Mother-child discord predicted BPD symptoms |
| Mahan et al. (27) | Controlled trial; Community population | 28 BPD mothers; 28 ctrl mothers; adolescent sons (14–18 years) |
Maternal psychological control positively associated with all mothers’ BPD features and with adolescent affective instability with an increased risk for adolescents of developing BPD themselves | |
| Conway et al. (28) | Longitudinal study; Community high-risk | 700; 15 years |
5 years | Maternal externalizing disorders and offspring internalizing disorders predicted BPD symptoms |
| Winsper et al. (99) | Longitudinal study; Community population | 6050; At birth |
12 years | Maternal anxiety and depression during pregnancy predicted BPD symptoms |
| Hammen et al. (31) | Longitudinal study; Community High Risk | 385; 15 years |
5 years | Relationship quality & oxytocin receptor genotype interacted to predict BPD symptoms: relationship quality predicted BPD symptoms for those with AA/AG genotype, not GG genotype |
| Lyons-Ruth et al. (32) | Longitudinal study; Community population | 120; 20 years |
21 years | Role confusion and disoriented behaviours in parent-young adult interaction predicted early BPD symptoms |
| Vanwoerden et al. (33) | Naturalistic study; community inpatients | 301; 12–17 years |
Relationships centered on guilt induction, psychological control and triangulation predicted BPD symptoms | |
| Trauma-related factors | Study design | Patients (n)/ recruitment age | Trial duration | Outcomes |
| Johnson et al. (41) | Longitudinal study; Community population | 738; <18 years |
17 years | Supervision neglect predicted BPD symptoms |
| Johnson et al. (42) | Longitudinal study; Community population | 793; 5 years |
17 years | Verbal abuse predicted BPD symptoms |
| Carlson et al. (30) | Longitudinal study; Community high-risk | 162; | 28 years | Physical and sexual abuse predicted BPD symptoms |
| Jovev et al. (43) | Longitudinal study; Community population | 245; 11–13 years |
2 years | Abuse associated with BPD symptoms for children with low Affiliation |
| Cohen et al. (16) | Longitudinal study; Community population | 680; 9–18 years |
22 years | Cumulative trauma (physical and sexual abuse & other traumas) predicted BPD symptoms. |
| Bornovalova et al. (44) | Longitudinal study; Community population | 2764; | 7–13 years | Abuse (physical, sexual, emotional) predicted BPD symptoms |
| Belsky et al. (45) | Longitudinal study; Community population | 1116; 5 years |
7 years | Physical abuse predicted BPD symptoms |
| Stepp et al. (21) | Longitudinal study; Community high-risk | 113; 16 years |
3 years | Sexual abuse predicted BPD symptoms |
| Lyons-Ruth et al. (46) | Longitudinal study; Community high-risk | 56; At birth |
21 years | Concomitance of childhood abuse and maternal withdrawal predicted BPD symptoms |
| Wolke et al. (50) | Longitudinal study; Community population (ALSPAC) | 6050; at birth |
12 years | Chronic exposure to peer victimization predicted BPD symptoms |
| Lereya et al. (51) | Longitudinal study; Community population (ALSPAC) | 4810; at birth |
18 years | Bullying exposure increased risk of self-harm by exacerbating the effects of exposure to an adverse family environment |
| Winsper et al. (52) | Longitudinal study; Community population (ALSPAC) | 4826; at birth |
14 years | Bully victimisation predicted BPD, depression, and psychotic symptoms |
| Haltigan and Vaillancourt (53) | Longitudinal study; Community population (McMaster Teen Study) | 875; 10 years |
6 years | Association between early BPD development and chronic bullying involvement in children with a reactive temperament |
| Antila et al. (54) | Longitudinal study; Clinical inpatients | 508; 13–17 years |
12 years | Increased (fourfold) risk for bullied female to develop PD, mostly BPD |
ALSPAC, Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children; ASPD, antisocial personality disorder; BPD, borderline personality disorder; ctrl, control; PD, personality disorder; SES, socioeconomic status.