Table 1. Assessment of risk factors associated with ESBL-E carriage in persons recruited from the general community by uni- and multivariate logistic regression analyses and their population attributable risk, the Netherlands, 2014–2016 (n = 4,177).
| Variable | ESBL- N = 3,991 |
ESBL- % |
ESBL+ N = 186 |
ESBL+ % |
Univariate OR (95% CI) |
Multivariate OR (95% CI)a |
PAR (95% CI) | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| n | Total responding | n | Total responding | ||||||||
| Sex (male) | 1,805 | 3,991 | 45.2 | 94 | 185 | 50.8 | 1.25 (0.93−1.68) | 1.51 (1.03−2.21) | 17.2 (1.5–27.8) | ||
| Born outside the Netherlands | 3,865 | 3,991 | 96.8 | 172 | 185 | 93.0 | 2.32 (1.28−4.19) | 1.99 (1.16−4.54) | 46.3 (12.8–72.5) | ||
| Social economic status (SES)b | Low | 865 | 3,970 | 21.8 | 38 | 183 | 20.8 | Reference | NA | ||
| Intermediate | 2,231 | 3,970 | 56.2 | 94 | 183 | 51.4 | 1.33 (0.86−2.04) | ||||
| High | 874 | 3,970 | 22.0 | 51 | 183 | 27.9 | 0.96 (0.65−1.41) | ||||
| Age group in years | 0–4 | 173 | 3,991 | 4.3 | 7 | 184 | 3.8 | Reference | NA | ||
| 5–12 | 274 | 3,991 | 6.9 | 9 | 184 | 4.9 | 0.81 (0.30−2.22) | ||||
| 13–19 | 136 | 3,991 | 3.4 | 7 | 184 | 3.8 | 1.27 (0.44−3.71) | ||||
| 20–39 | 501 | 3,991 | 12.6 | 20 | 184 | 10.9 | 0.99 (0.41−2.38) | ||||
| 40–64 | 1,738 | 3,991 | 43.5 | 90 | 184 | 48.9 | 1.28 (0.58−2.81) | ||||
| 65–79 | 1,025 | 3,991 | 25.7 | 46 | 184 | 25.0 | 1.11 (0.49−2.50) | ||||
| ≥ 80 | 144 | 3,991 | 3.6 | 5 | 184 | 2.7 | 0.86 (0.27−2.76) | ||||
| Seasonc | Autumn | 1,242 | 3,990 | 31.1 | 62 | 184 | 33.7 | Reference | NA | ||
| Winter | 987 | 3,990 | 24.7 | 36 | 184 | 19.6 | 0.89 (0.59−1.33) | ||||
| Spring | 835 | 3,990 | 20.9 | 45 | 184 | 24.5 | 0.73 (0.48−1.11) | ||||
| Summer | 926 | 3,990 | 23.2 | 41 | 184 | 22.3 | 1.08 (0.73−1.60) | ||||
| Level of educationd | Low | 610 | 3,908 | 15.6 | 27 | 178 | 15.2 | Reference | NA | ||
| Intermediate | 1,850 | 3,908 | 47.3 | 67 | 178 | 37.6 | 0.82 (0.52−1.29) | ||||
| High | 1,448 | 3,908 | 37.1 | 84 | 178 | 47.2 | 1.31 (0.84−2.04) | ||||
| Eat in restaurants > 20 times a year | 398 | 3,946 | 10.1 | 33 | 183 | 18.0 | 1.96 (1.33−2.90) | 1.70 (1.04−2.76) | 7.4 (0.7–11.5) | ||
| Children < 12 years old in the household | 966 | 3,938 | 24.5 | 33 | 182 | 18.1 | 0.68 (0.46–1.00) | NA | |||
| Ate pork | 1,506 | 1,860 | 81.0 | 71 | 95 | 74.7 | 0.70 (0.43−1.13) | 0.62 (0.32−1.07) | NA | ||
| Used antibiotics in the past | Never | 549 | 3,773 | 14.6 | 15 | 170 | 8.8 | Reference | NA | ||
| < 6 months ago | 422 | 3,773 | 11.2 | 28 | 170 | 16.5 | 2.12 (1.02−4.40) | 2.05 (1.05−4.03) | 8.7 (0.3–12.8) | ||
| 6–12 months ago | 291 | 3,773 | 7.7 | 13 | 170 | 7.6 | 1.66 (0.96−2.87) | 1.65 (0.71−3.81) | NA | ||
| > 12 months ago | 2,511 | 3,773 | 66.6 | 114 | 170 | 67.1 | 1.64 (0.77−3.48) | 1.20 (0.64−2.23) | NA | ||
| Animals in or around the household | 1,914 | 3,923 | 48.8 | 102 | 182 | 56.0 | 1.34 (0.99−1.81) | NA | |||
| Swimming in sea/ocean in the past 12 months | 1,353 | 3,596 | 37.6 | 80 | 165 | 48.5 | 1.56 (1.14−2.13) | 1.63 (1.11−2.39) | 18.7 (4.8–28.2) | ||
| Swimming in open fresh water (lakes, rivers, etc.) in the past 4 weeks | 158 | 2,974 | 5.3 | 12 | 133 | 9.0 | 1.77 (0.96−3.27) | NA | |||
| Swimming in sea/ocean in the past 4 weeks | 169 | 2,979 | 5.7 | 15 | 135 | 11.1 | 2.08 (1.19−3.64) | NA | |||
| Not changing the kitchen towel on a daily basis | 2,973 | 3,920 | 75.8 | 159 | 182 | 87.4 | 2.20 (1.41−3.43) | 2.19 (1.24−3.87) | 47.5 (16.9–64.8) | ||
| Travelling in the 4 weeks before faecal sample collection | 720 | 3,551 | 20.3 | 45 | 162 | 27.8 | 1.51 (1.06–2.15) | 1.17 (0.76–1.81) | NA | ||
| Travelling in the past 12 months | 2,677 | 3,937 | 68.0 | 136 | 182 | 74.7 | 1.39 (0.99−1.96) | NA | |||
| Travelling in the past 12 monthse | No | 1,260 | 3,891 | 32.4 | 46 | 181 | 25.3 | Reference | NA | ||
| To Europe | 2,310 | 3,891 | 59.4 | 100 | 181 | 55.2 | 1.19 (0.83−1.69) | 0.83 (0.54−1.29) | NA | ||
| To Africa | 57 | 3,891 | 1.5 | 8 | 181 | 4.4 | 3.85 (1.73−8.50) | 3.03 (1.23−7.46) | 2.9 (0.8–3.8) | ||
| To Asia | 162 | 3,891 | 4.2 | 22 | 181 | 12.2 | 3.73 (2.18−6.35) | 2.00 (1.02−3.90) | 6.1 (0.02–9.1) | ||
| To North America | 102 | 3,891 | 2.6 | 5 | 181 | 2.8 | 1.34 (0.52−3.46) | 0.17 (0.02−3.62) | NA | ||
CI: confidence interval; ESBL-E: extended-spectrum beta-lactamase producing Enterobacteriaceae; NA: not applicable (variable is not part of this analysis); OR: odds ratio; PAR: population attributable risk (always based on the final multivariate logistic regression model after imputation of missing values).
a Always controlled for the following variables: age (0–4, 5–12, 13–19, 20–39, 40–64, 65–79, ≥ 80 years) and seasonc.
b Social economic status (SES): all neighbourhoods were ranked according to their social status based on income, occupation and education level per postcode. High: the first quantile of the rank; intermediate: the second and third quantiles of the rank; low: the fourth quantile of the rank.
c For the season, autumn was from September to November, winter from December to February, spring from March to May and summer from June to August.
d Level of education: low: primary, lower vocational or lower secondary education; intermediate: intermediate vocational, intermediate/higher secondary education; higher: higher vocational, college and university education.
e The travel destination of 46 individuals was unknown.