Table 2.

Epigenetic biomarkers in atherosclerosis.

Epigenetic modification	Biomarker	Regulation in atherosclerosis	Sample source	Study type	References
DNA methylation	KLF2 promoter	Methylation	HUVEC cells	Experimental: in vitro	(Kumar et al., 2013)
	KLF4 promoter	Methylation	HAEC cells	Experimental: in vitro	(Jiang et al., 2014)
	HECA, EBF1, NOD2, MAP4K4, ZEB1, FYN	HECA, EBF1, NOD2: Hypomethylated; MAP4K4, ZEB1, FYN: Hypermethylated	Human aortic intima and HEK293 cells	Clinical and experimental: in vitro	(Yamada et al., 2014)
	TIMP1, ABCA1, ACAT1 promoters	Altered methylation status	Peripheral blood	Clinical	(Ma et al., 2016)
	SMAD7 promoter	Hypermethylation	Peripheral blood and atherosclerotic plaques	Clinical	(Wei et al., 2018)
	5mC, 5-hmC	Higher levels	Peripheral blood	Clinical	(Jiang et al., 2019)
Histone modifications	HDAC3	Deficiency	Aorta and HUVEC cells	Experimental: apoE−/− mice and in vitro	(Zampetaki et al., 2010)
	H3K27Me3	Reduction in H3K27Me3 modification	Perirenal aortic tissue patches	Clinical	(Wierda et al., 2015)
	H3K9, H3K27	Higher histone acetylation and lower histone methylation	Carotid tissue	Clinical	(Greißel et al., 2016)
miRNA	miR-130a, miR-27b, miR-210	Higher levels	Serum and intima tissue	Clinical	(Li et al., 2011)
	miR-17-5p	Higher levels	Plasma	Clinical	(Chen et al., 2015a)
	miR-143-3p, miR-222-3p	Lower levels	Microparticles	Clinical	(de Gonzalo-Calvo et al., 2016)
	miR-30	Lower levels	Plasma	Clinical	(Huang et al., 2016b)
	miR-92a	Higher levels	Plasma	Clinical	(Huang et al., 2017a)
	miR-18a-5p, miR-27a-3p, miR-199a-3p, miR-223-3p, miR-652-3p	Lower levels	Plasma	Clinical	(Vegter et al., 2017)
	miR-33a	Higher levels	Plasma	Clinical	(Kim et al., 2017)
	miR-126	Lower levels	Plasma	Experimental: apoE−/− mice	(Hao and Fan, 2017)
	miR-212	Overexpression	Serum	Clinical	(Jeong et al., 2017)
	miRNA let-7	Higher levels	Plasma	Clinical	(Huang et al., 2017b)
	miR-1254	Higher levels	Plasma	Clinical	(de Gonzalo-Calvo et al., 2018)
	miR-200c	Overexpression	Carotid plaques and plasma	Clinical	(Magenta et al., 2018)
	miR-29c	Higher levels	Plasma	Clinical	(Huang et al., 2018)
	miR-221, miR-222	Lower expression levels	Serum	Clinical	(Yilmaz et al., 2018)
	miR-638	Lower levels	Serum	Clinical	(Luque et al., 2018)
	miR-122	Higher levels	Serum	Clinical	(Wang and Yu, 2018)
	miR-221, miR-222	Higher levels in tissue samples and lower levels in whole blood	Coronary artery atherosclerotic plaques, and internal mammary arteries and whole blood	Clinical	(Bildirici et al., 2018)
	miR-664a-3p	Downregulation	Serum	Clinical	(Li et al., 2018b)
	miR-155	Higher levels	Serum	Clinical	(Qiu and Ma, 2018)
	miR-19A, miR-19B, miR-126, miR-155	Differential levels	GEO dataset	High throughput	(Mao et al., 2018)
	miR-126, miR-143	Higher levels	Plasma	Clinical	(Gao et al., 2019)