TABLE I.
Overview of electroconductive biomaterial systems employed in the field of cardiac tissue engineering and cardiac biomaterials.
| Heart models in vitro | Smart cardiac patches in vivo | Injection of hydrogels in vivo | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Electroconductive biomaterial | Fabrication | Findings | Fabrication | Findings | Fabrication | Findings |
| CNTs | GelMA hydrogels35 | Nanotopographic cues to cells ↑ Cardiac markers in MSCs |
… | … | Gelatin-based194 | ↑ cTnT and Cx43 in vitro, angiogenesis in vivo |
| Elastic polyester162 | ||||||
| Chitosan-based163 | ||||||
| PEG-poly(D,L-lactide)164 | ||||||
| Wet-dry electrospinning YARNS + GelMA168 | ↑ Cardiac feature and markers w/out electrical stimulation | |||||
| Graphene | Film: pristine graphene + collagen2 | ↑ Cell alignment, hES-CM maturation | GO + AuNPs + chitosan186 | ↑ Conduction velocity and contraction | GO with GelMA and pDNA (VEGF165)29 | ↑ Angiogenesis |
| Lyophilization: rGO + collagen157 | ↑ CM maturation | |||||
| Lyophilization: GelMA158 | ↑ CM maturation | GO with PEG diacrylate and adipose derived stem cells (ADSCs)195 | ↑ α-SMA and Cx43 in vivo | |||
| Coating PEG via CVD159 | ↑ cell attachment ↑ sarcomere length |
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| Metallic NPs | HEMA hydrogels155 | ↑ Cx43 in CMs | Collagen hydrogel + collagen fibers190 | ↑ Heart function, vascularization, absence of proinflammatory response | … | … |
| Chitosan hydrogels156 | ↑ Cardiac markers in MSCs | |||||
| PANI | Electrospinning in blend with PLGA152 | ↑ Cx43 expression, synchronous beating | Chitosan232 | ↑ Heart function, no induction of arrhythmias | Chitosan as smart drug carriers191 | Controlled inflammatory response in vivo |
| Film in PLA165 | ↑ Cell proliferation, development of pseudopodia | Hyaluronic acid, pDNA (eNOS), and ADSCs25 | ↑ Angiogenesis and tissue healing | |||
| Polyurethane169 | ↑ TNNT2 and Actinin alpha 4 gene w/out electrical stimulation | Microablation of the chitosan film9 | Auxetic design, mechanical and electrical anisotropy | Cyclodextrin198 | ↓ Inflammatory response, fibroblastic capsule in vivo | |
| Electrospinning in blend with polyethersulfone175 | ↑ NKX2.5, GATA4, NPPA, and TNNT2 | |||||
| PPy | Film in PCL166 | ↑ Ca2+ propagation velocity ↑ Cx43 |
Paintable adhesive dopamine blend189 | ↑ Heart function and vascularization | Chitosan192 | Electrical coupling in vitro and ex vivo |
| Electrospinning in blend with PCL167 | ↑ Cellular alignment ↑ Cx43 |
Chitosan gel foam26 | ↑ Conduction velocity absence of arrhythmias | |||
| Coating on PLGA electrospun scaffold174 | ↑ Actinin, NKX2.5, GATA4, Myh6; actuation ability | |||||
| PEDOT | Collagen/alginate hydrogel176 | ↑ Increased sarcomeric length; faster and wider contraction | … | … | … | … |