Table 2.
Profile of cardiovascular disease risk factors
| Characteristic | Total, n=931 | Male, n=501 | Female, n=430 | P value | |||
| n (%) | 95% CI (%) | n (%) | 95% CI (%) | n (%) | 95% CI (%) | ||
| Personal history | |||||||
| Self-reported hypertension | 6 (0.6) | 0.1 to 1.1 | 3 (0.6) | 0.0 to 1.3 | 3 (0.7) | 0.0 to 1.5 | 1.000 |
| Self-reported diabetes | 3 (0.3) | 0.0 to 0.6 | 2 (0.4) | 0.0 to 0.9 | 1 (0.2) | 0.0 to 0.6 | 1.000 |
| Another chronic non-communicable disease (asthma) | 15 (1.6) | 0.8 to 2.4 | 5 (1.0) | 0.1 to 1.9 | 10 (2.3) | 0.9 to 3.7 | 0.123 |
| HIV infection (self-reported) | 2 (0.2) | 0.0 to 0.5 | 0 (0.0) | / | 2 (0.5) | 0.2 to 1.2 | 0.213 |
| Family history | |||||||
| Either or both of biological parents had a heart attack | 29 (3.1) | 2.0 to 4.2 | 18 (3.6) | 2.0 to 5.2 | 11 (2.6) | 1.1 to 4.1 | 0.365 |
| Either or both of biological parents had stroke | 59 (6.3) | 4.7 to 7.9 | 29 (5.8) | 3.7 to 7.8 | 30 (7.0) | 4.6 to 9.4 | 0.458 |
| Either or both of biological parents had died suddenly | 52 (5.6) | 4.1 to 7.1 | 24 (4.8) | 2.9 to 6.7 | 28 (6.5) | 4.2 to 8.8 | 0.254 |
| Either or both of biological parents has/had hypertension | 298 (32.0) | 29.0 to 35.0 | 153 (30.5) | 26.5 to 34.5 | 145 (33.7) | 29.3 to 38.2 | 0.299 |
| Either or both of biological parents has/had diabetes | 150 (16.1) | 13.7 to 18.5 | 88 (17.6) | 14.3 to 20.9 | 62 (14.4) | 11.0 to 17.7 | 0.193 |
| At least one brother or sister has/had hypertension | 36 (3.9) | 2.7 to 5.1 | 21 (4.2) | 2.4 to 6.0 | 15 (3.5) | 1.8 to 5.2 | 0.579 |
| At least one brother or sister has/had diabetes | 16 (1.7) | 0.9 to 2.5 | 9 (1.8) | 0.6 to 3.0 | 7 (1.6) | 0.4 to 2.8 | 0.844 |
| Lifestyle | |||||||
| Hazardous alcohol use | 249 (26.7) | 23.9 to 29.5 | 162 (32.3) | 28.2 to 36.4 | 87 (20.2) | 16.4 to 24 | <0.001* |
| Tobacco smoking | 0.124 | ||||||
| Former | 31 (3.3) | 2.1 to 4.4 | 21 (4.2) | 2.4 to 6.0 | 10 (2.3) | 0.9 to 3.7 | |
| Current | 8 (0.9) | 0.3 to 1.5 | 6 1.2) | 0.2 to 2.1 | 2 (0.5) | 0.2 to 1.2 | |
| Secondhand smoking | 257 (27.6) | 24.7 to 30.5 | 158 (31.5) | 27.4 to 35.6 | 99 (23.0) | 19.0 to 27.0 | 0.004* |
| Regular exposure to firewood smoke | 145 (15.6) | 13.3 to 17.9 | 65 (13.0) | 10.1 to 15.9 | 80 (18.6) | 14.9 to 22.3 | 0.018* |
| Physical activity | <0.001* | ||||||
| Mainly sedentary | 258 (27.7) | 24.8 to 30.6 | 100 (20.0) | 16.5 to 23.5 | 158 (36.7) | 32.1 to 41.3 | |
| Mild exercise | 570 (61.2) | 58.1 to 64.3 | 325 (64.9) | 60.7 to 69.1 | 245 (57.0) | 52.3 to 61.7 | |
| Moderate exercise | 20 (2.1) | 1.2 to 3.0 | 18 (3.6) | 2.0 to 5.2 | 2 (0.5) | 0.0 to 1.2 | |
| Strenuous exercise | 83 (8.9) | 7.1 to 10.7 | 58 (11.6) | 8.8 to 14.4 | 25 (5.8) | 3.6 to 8.0 | |
| Experienced anxiety over the last 12 months | 371 (39.8) | 36.7 to 42.9 | 173 (34.5) | 30.3 to 38.7 | 198 (46.0) | 41.3 to 50.7 | 0.001* |
| Felt sad, melancholy or depressed for 2 weeks or more in a row | 458 (49.2) | 46.0 to 52.4 | 216 (43.1) | 38.8 to 47.4 | 242 (56.3) | 51.6 to 61.0 | <0.001* |
| Diet and nutrition | |||||||
| Eating salty food or snacks one or more times a day | 874 (93.9) | 92.4 to 95.4 | 469 (93.6) | 91.5 to 95.7 | 405 (94.2) | 92.0 to 96.4 | 0.716 |
| Eating foods/drinks containing too much sugar one or more times a day | 775 (83.2) | 80.8 to 85.6 | 423 (84.4) | 81.2 to 87.6 | 352 (81.9) | 78.3 to 85.5 | 0.295 |
| Eating oily foods/snacks one or more times a day | 505 (54.2) | 51.0 to 57.4 | 277 (55.3) | 50.9 to 59.6 | 228 (55.0) | 50.3 to 59.7 | 0.489 |
| Eating oily foods/snacks three or more times a week | 483 (51.9) | 48.7 to 55.1 | 271 (54.1) | 49.7 to 58.5 | 212 (49.3) | 44.6 to 54.0 | 0.145 |
| Eating dairy products one or more times a day | 378 (40.6) | 37.4 to 43.7 | 164 (32.7) | 28.6 to 36.8 | 214 (49.8) | 45.1 to 54.3 | <0.001* |
| Eating dairy products three or more times a week | 550 (59.1) | 55.9 to 62.3 | 281 (56.1) | 51.7 to 60.4 | 269 (62.6) | 58.0 to 67.2 | 0.045* |
| Eating deep fried foods or snacks or fast foods three or more times a week | 527 (56.6) | 53.4 to 59.8 | 294 (58.7) | 54.4 to 63.0 | 233 (54.2) | 49.5 to 58.9 | 0.168 |
| Eating meat and/or poultry two or more times daily | 299 (32.1) | 29.1 to 35.1 | 143 (28.5) | 24.5 to 32.4 | 156 (36.3) | 31.7 to 40.8 | 0.012* |
| Not eating at least 1–2 cups/portions of fruits one or more times a day (inadequate fruits consumption) | 861 (92.5) | 90.8 to 94.2 | 472 (94.2) | 92.1 to 96.2 | 389 (90.5) | 87.7 to 93.3 | 0.031* |
| Not eating at least 2–3 cups of vegetables one or more times a day (inadequate vegetables consumption) | 909 (97.6) | 96.6 to 98.6 | 486 (97.0) | 95.5 to 98.5 | 423 (98.4) | 97.2 to 99.6 | 0.171 |
| Inadequate fruits and vegetables consumption | 922 (99.0) | 98.4 to 99.6 | 495 (99.8) | 99.4 to 100.0 | 427 (99.3) | 98.5 to 100.0 | 0.517 |
| Anthropometric parameters and blood pressure | |||||||
| Body mass index (kg/m2) | 0.002* | ||||||
| Underweight (<18.5) | 45 (4.8) | 3.4 to 6.2 | 18 (3.6) | 1.9 to 5.2 | 27 (6.3) | 4.0 to 8.6 | |
| Normal (18.5–24.9) | 644 (69.2) | 66.2 to 72.2 | 373 (74.5) | 70.7 to 78.3 | 271 (63.0) | 58.4 to 67.6 | |
| Overweight (25–29.9) | 206 (22.1) | 19.4 to 24.8 | 96 (19.1) | 15.7 to 22.5 | 110 (25.6) | 21.5 to 29.7 | |
| Obesity (≥30) | 36 (3.9) | 2.7 to 5.1 | 14 (2.8) | 1.4 to 4.2 | 22 (5.1) | 3.0 to 7.2 | |
| Abdominal obesity using WC | |||||||
| WHO criteria (>102/88 cm for men/women) | 41 (4.4) | 3.1 to 5.7 | 7 (1.4) | 0.4 to 2.4 | 34 (7.9) | 5.3 to 10.4 | <0.001* |
| IDF criteria (>90/80 cm for men/women) | 134 (14.4) | 12.1 to 16.7 | 29 (5.8) | 3.7 to 7.8 | 105 (24.4) | 20.3 to 28.5 | <0.001* |
| Abdominal obesity using WHR (≥0.9/0.85 for men/women) | 63 (6.8) | 5.2 to 8.4 | 19 (3.8) | 2.1 to 5.5 | 44 (10.2) | 7.3 to 13.1 | <0.001* |
| Excess body fat mass (>20/33% for men/women) | 135 (14.5) | 12.2 to 16.8 | 61 (12.2) | 9.3 to 15.1 | 74 (17.2) | 13.6 to 20.8 | 0.030* |
| Systolic blood pressure | <0.001* | ||||||
| Normal (90–129 mm Hg) | 671 (72.1) | 69.2 to 75.0 | 293 (58.5) | 54.2 to 62.8 | 378 (87.9) | 84.8 to 91.0 | |
| Prehypertension (120–139 mm Hg) | 245 (26.3) | 23.5 to 29.1 | 195 (38.9) | 34.6 to 43.2 | 50 (11.6) | 8.6 to 14.6 | |
| Hypertension (≥140 mm Hg) | 15 (1.6) | 0.8 to 2.4 | 13 (2.6) | 1.2 to 4.0 | 2 (0.2) | 0.0 to 0.6 | |
| Diastolic blood pressure | <0.001* | ||||||
| Normal (60–79 mm Hg) | 791 (85.0) | 82.7 to 87.3 | 404 (80.6) | 77.1 to 84.1 | 387 (48.9) | 44.2 to 53.6 | |
| Prehypertension (80–89 mm Hg) | 125 (13.4) | 11.2 to 15.6 | 87 (17.4) | 14.1 to 20.7 | 38 (8.8) | 6.1 to 11.5 | |
| Hypertension (≥90 mm Hg) | 15 (1.6) | 0.8 to 2.4 | 10 (2.0) | 0.8 to 3.2 | 5 (1.6) | 0.4 to 2.8 | |
| Suspected prehypertension (SBP 120–139 or DBP 80–89 mm Hg) | 279 (30.0) | 27.1 to 32.9 | 213 (42.5) | 38.2 to 46.8 | 66 (15.3) | 11.9 to 18.7 | <0.001* |
| Suspected hypertension (SBP ≥140 or DBP≥90 mm Hg) | 26 (2.8) | 1.7 to 3.9 | 20 (4.0) | 2.3 to 5.7 | 6 (1.4) | 0.3 to 2.5 | <0.001* |
*P<0.05.
DBP, diastolic blood pressure; IDF, International Diabetes Federation; SBP, systolic blood pressure; WC, waist circumference; WHR, waist to hip ratio.