Table 4.

Estimated effect of birth on standardized local language oral reading score from linear fixed-effects models

	BALIKA (Bangladesh)		MSAS (Malawi)		AGEP (Zambia)
					Rural		Urban
	Model 1	Model 2	Model 1	Model 2	Model 1	Model 2	Model 1	Model 2
Ever Birth	–0.03	0.02	–0.01	0.01	0.05	0.09†	0.01	0.02
Grade Attainment
<6 grades	–0.45***	–0.46***	–0.13†	–0.12†	–0.65***	–0.69***	–0.65***	–0.65***
6 grades	–0.08*	–0.07*	0.00	0.02	–0.55***	–0.58***	–0.38***	–0.38***
7 grades	–0.07*	–0.06*	–0.01	0.00	–0.34***	–0.31***	–0.29***	–0.28***
8 grades	–0.02	–0.02	0.01	0.02	–0.12**	–0.11**	–0.12**	–0.12**
9+ grades (ref.)	––	––	––	––	––	––	––	––
Ever Birth × Grade Attainment
Birth × <6 grades		0.12		–0.07		0.37†		–0.15*
Birth × 6 grades		–0.42†		–0.05		–0.01		–0.05
Birth × 7 grades		–0.30		0.00		–0.25*		–0.03
Birth × 8 grades		0.05		–0.02		–0.05		–0.02
Birth × 9+ grades (ref.)		––		––		––		––
Hausman Test Results (fixed-effects vs. random-effects models), p Value		.0001		.0001		.0001		.0001
Number of Observations	15,276		4,776		3,066		3,157
Number of Groups (subjects)	7,638		856		697		706

Notes: Raw oral reading score ranges from 0 to 4 (for each sentence, 0 = cannot read at all, 1 = can read partial sentence, 2 = can read full sentence; scores on each sentence are summed). Regression models use standardized reading score values based on the baseline distribution of scores in each study. All models adjust for geographic clustering. BALIKA models use inverse probability weighting to account for loss to follow-up at endline. Because BALIKA included only two rounds of data collection, time since school leaving is dichotomous, coded as either in school or out of school at endline. Models control for time since school leaving, current work status, and household wealth. AGEP models also control for time-varying exposure to the intervention, but this information was not available for BALIKA.

^†p < .10; *p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001