Table 2.
Targets of immunostimulants employed in vaccines.
| Target | Agent | References |
|---|---|---|
| TLR‐2 | Mannan, zymosan, beta‐glucan, muramyl dipeptide (MDP) | 110, 111, 112 |
| TLR‐2/1 | Bacterial lipopeptide; Pam3CSK4 | 113, 114, 115 |
| TLR‐2/6 | Mycoplasma derived macrophage‐activating lipopeptide (MALP‐2) | 116 |
| TLR‐3 | dsRNA | 117, 118, 119 |
| TLR‐4 | LPS, glycoinositol phospholipids, mannan; monophosphoryl lipid A (MPLA) | 120, 121, 122 |
| TLR‐5 | Flagellin | 123 |
| TLR‐6 | Zymosan, beta‐glucan | 124 |
| TLR‐7, TLR‐8 | ssRNA; imiquimod | 125, 126, 127 |
| TLR‐9 | CpG DNA | 128 |
| GM1 | Cholera toxin B fragment (CTB), E. coli toxin B fragment (ETB) | Jobling 9, Stratmann 36 |
| NOD1 NOD2 | Muramyl dipeptide (MDP) | 129 |
| STING | cGAMP | 130 |
| IL‐1 receptor | IL‐1 | 131 |
| IL‐7, IL‐12 and IL‐15 receptors | IL‐7, IL‐12, IL‐15 | 132 |
| Mincle | Trehalose dibehenate (TDB) | 133 |
See Hug et al. 134 for a general review on Toll‐like receptors (TLR) in relation to the human gut.
CpG = cytosine–phosphate–guanine; IL = interleukin; LPS = lipopolysaccharide; NOD = non‐obese diabetic.