Table 4. Factors associated with estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) <90 adjusted for age and sex only, adjusted for distal factors, and adjusted for both distal and behavioral factors.
| Adjusted for age and sex only | Adjusted for distal factors
(age, sex, site, education, occupation, wealth score) |
Adjusted for distal and behavioral
factors (age, sex, site, occupation, wealth score, smoking, alcohol and physical activity), and diabetes and hypertension |
||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| OR (95% CI) | p 1 | OR (95% CI) | p 1 | OR (95% CI) | p 1 | |
| Sex | ||||||
| Female | 1 | 0.26 | 1 | 0.02 | 1 | 0.39 |
| Male | 0.91
(0.78-1.07) |
0.81
(0.68-0.96) |
0.92
(0.76-1.12) |
|||
| Age group | ||||||
| 18–29 | 1 | <0.001 | 1.00 | <0.001 | 1.00 | <0.001 |
| 30–39 | 2.61
(1.87-3.66) |
2.59
(1.83-3.66) |
2.50
(1.77-3.54) |
|||
| 40–49 | 6.77
(4.99-9.19) |
6.68
(4.86-9.18) |
6.27
(4.55-8.64) |
|||
| 50–59 | 12.86
(9.41-17.57) |
12.98
(9.37-18.00) |
11.32
(8.09-15.83) |
|||
| 60–69 | 24.71
(17.67-34.56) |
26.01
(18.37-36.83) |
20.69
(14.35-29.83) |
|||
| 70+ | 176.55
(112.37-277.37) |
199.27
(124.15-319.84) |
148.38
(90.88-242.27) |
|||
| Site | ||||||
| Rural | 1 | 0.03 | 1 | 0.92 | 1 | 0.82 |
| Urban | 0.84
(0.72-0.98) |
1.01
(0.77-1.34) |
0.97
(0.73-1.28) |
|||
| Household wealth score | ||||||
| 1 (poorest) | 1 | 0.53 * | 1.00 | 0.54 * | 1.00 | 0.78 * |
| 2 | 1.12
(0.87-1.44) |
1.12
(0.87-1.44) |
1.10
(0.85-1.42) |
|||
| 3 | 1 .00
(0.77-1.29) |
1.03
(0.79-1.35) |
1.00
(0.76-1.31) |
|||
| 4 | 1.06
(0.83-1.35) |
1.06
(0.83-1.37) |
1.02
(0.79-1.32) |
|||
| 5 (wealthiest) | 1.14
(0.88-1.48) |
1.15
(0.86-1.54) |
1.11
(0.82-1.49) |
|||
| Education | ||||||
| No formal | 0.82
(0.60-1.11) |
0.03 * | 0.86
(0.63-1.19) |
0.03 * | 0.85
(0.62-1.17) |
0.03 * |
| Standard 1–5 | 0.88
(0.69-1.11) |
0.87
(0.69-1.11) |
0.90
(0.71-1.14) |
|||
| Standard 6–8 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||
| Secondary | 0.92
(0.75-1.12) |
1.01
(0.81-1.24) |
1.01
(0.82-1.26) |
|||
| Tertiary | 1.42
(1.07-1.90) |
1.47
(1.04-2.07) |
1.53
(1.08-2.17) |
|||
| Occupation | ||||||
| Not working | 1.25
(0.89-1.76) |
<0.001 | 1.17
(0.83-1.66) |
0.003 | 1.09
(0.77-1.56) |
0.003 |
| Housework | 0.86
(0.63-1.18) |
0.89
(0.65-1.23) |
0.87
(0.63-1.20) |
|||
| Farming/fishing | 1.44
(1.13-1.84) |
1.55
(1.14-2.12) |
1.58
(1.15-2.15) |
|||
| Self-employed | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||
| Employed | 1.58
(1.18-2.13) |
1.42
(1.04-1.93) |
1.37
(1.00-1.88) |
|||
| Smoking status | ||||||
| Never smoker | 1 | 0.02 | 1 | 0.03 | 1 | 0.17 |
| Ex-smoker or current smoker | 0.70
(0.52-0.94) |
0.71
(0.53-0.97) |
0.80
(0.59-1.10) |
|||
| Alcohol consumption | ||||||
| Never | 1 | 0.06 | 1 | 0.05 | 1 | 0.11 |
| Rarely/often | 0.81
(0.65-1.01) |
0.80
(0.64-1.00) |
0.83
(0.65-1.04) |
|||
| Physical activity 2 | ||||||
| Did not meet WHO recommendation | 1.48
(0.96-2.28) |
0.08 | 1.44
(0.93-2.23) |
0.10 | 1.32
(0.85-2.07) |
0.22 |
| Met WHO recommendation | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||
| BMI (kg/m 2) 3 | ||||||
| <18 | 0.58
(0.38-0.89) |
0.03 | 0.57
(0.38-0.87) |
0.009 | 0.62
(0.41-0.94) |
0.04 |
| 18–24.99 | 1 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||
| 25–29.99 | 1.12
(0.92-1.36) |
1.19
(0.97-1.45) |
1.16
(0.94-1.43) |
|||
| 30+ | 1.04
(0.82-1.34) |
1.13
(0.87-1.48) |
1.04
(0.79-1.37) |
|||
| Hypertension 4 | ||||||
| No hypertension | 1 | <0.001 | 1 | <0.001 | 1 | <0.001 |
| Hypertension | 1.57
(1.30-1.88) |
1.69
(1.40-2.05) |
1.77
(1.46-2.16) |
|||
| Diabetes 5 | ||||||
| No diabetes | 1 | 0.03 | 1 | 0.03 | 1 | 0.001 |
| Diabetes | 0.71
(0.51-0.98) |
0.70
(0.50-0.97) |
0.57
(0.40-0.81) |
|||
| HIV | ||||||
| Negative | 1 | 0.50 | 1 | 0.52 | 1 | 0.29 |
| Positive | 1.09
(0.84-1.41) |
1.09
(0.84-1.42) |
1.16
(0.89-1.51) |
|||
1. Likelihood ratio tests for association. Values marked with * are test-for-trend p-values.
2. High defined as meeting recommended WHO physical activity levels.
3. Missing data on 123 participants
4. Defined as blood pressure ≥140/90 or on antihypertensive medication, missing data on 3 participants
5. Defined as fasting plasma glucose≥7.1 or self-report, missing data on 3 participants
BMI, body mass index; OR, odds ratio; CI, confidence intervals