Table A4.

Interactive Model Estimates for Direct Effects of Grandparents’ Education on Grandchildren’s Education based on Marginal Structural Models (MSM) of Mixed-Effects Models with Random Intercepts

	African Americans				Whites
	Paternal grandparent	Maternal grandparent	Grandfather	Grandmother	Paternal grandparent	Maternal grandparent	Grandfather	Grandmother
Grandparents, generation 1
Years of schooling $\left(A_1\right)$	0.063 (0.051)	0.136*** (0.040)	0.069* (0.029)	0.112** (0.036)	0.072* (0.030)	0.086** (0.033)	0.073*** (0.020)	0.079** (0.025)
$A_1$$\times$ Family structure in G1 $\left(M_1\right)$ (ref: two-parent)
One-parent, divorced	−0.052 (0.068)	−0.060 (0.045)	−0.093† (0.055)	−0.039 (0.044)	−0.015 (0.089)	−0.067 (0.060)	0.018 (0.033)	−0.007 (0.050)
One-parent, unmarried	0.003 (0.065)	0.000 (0.070)	−0.073 (0.074)	0.076 (0.071)	−0.083† (0.048)	0.101 (0.084)	−0.104† (0.056)	−0.044 (0.057)
$A_1$$\times$ Family structure in G2 $\left(M_2\right)$ (ref: two-parent)
One-parent, divorced	−0.002 (0.093)	−0.102* (0.047)	−0.040 (0.040)	−0.086† (0.045)	0.008 (0.049)	−0.041 (0.043)	−0.003 (0.051)	−0.058 (0.038)
One-parent, unmarried	−0.018 (0.066)	−0.126** (0.045)	−0.040 (0.039)	−0.114** (0.039)	−0.160 (0.123)	−0.150* (0.062)	0.018 (0.131)	−0.097† (0.053)
Number of family lineages	228	529	355	574	491	653	732	878
Number of observations	628	1,961	1,408	2,433	1,248	1,672	2,281	2,754

Data sources: Multigenerational linked data from Panel Study of Income Dynamics, 1968–2013.

Notes: Figures in parentheses are standard errors from 20 imputed samples.

^†p < .1,

^*p < .05,

^**p < .01,

^***p < .001 (two-tailed tests).

Coefficients of control variables including grandparents’ and parents’ disability status, occupational status, family income, and homeownership as well as parents’ age groups, sex, region, and religion, are not presented in the table.