Table 6.

Interactive Model Estimates for Direct Effects of Grandparents’ Education on Grandchildren’s Education by Family Structures across Generations based on Mixed-Effects Models with Random Intercepts (Regular) and Marginal Structural Models (MSM)

	Full Sample		African Americans		Whites
	Regular	MSM	Regular	MSM	Regular	MSM
Grandparents, generation 1
Years of schooling $\left(A_1\right)$	0.049** (0.018)	0.089*** (0.019)	0.095*** (0.030)	0.121*** (0.033)	0.028 (0.024)	0.075** (0.024)
$A_1$ $\times$ Family structure in G1 $\left(M_1\right)$ (reference: two-parent)
One-parent, divorced	−0.031 (0.028)	−0.050† (0.030)	−0.034 (0.036)	−0.058 (0.042)	−0.021 (0.043)	−0.026 (0.047)
One-parent, unmarried	0.033 (0.042)	0.021 (0.047)	0.023 (0.053)	0.016 (0.061)	0.020 (0.068)	0.010 (0.073)
$A_1$ $\times$ Family structure in G2 $\left(M_2\right)$ (reference: two-parent)
One-parent, divorced	−0.027 (0.022)	−0.026 (0.024)	−0.085* (0.036)	−0.082* (0.042)	−0.020 (0.029)	−0.023 (0.035)
One-parent, unmarried	−0.088*** (0.024)	−0.096*** (0.028)	−0.109*** (0.033)	−0.115*** (0.036)	−0.124** (0.048)	−0.131* (0.057)
Number of family lineages	1,485	1,485	586	586	899	899
Number of observations	5,357	5,357	2,525	2,525	2,832	2,832

Data sources: Multigenerational linked data from Panel Study of Income Dynamics, 1968–2013.

Notes: Figures in parentheses are robust standard errors.

^†p < .1,

^*p < .05,

^**p < .01,

^***p < .001 (two-tailed tests).

Coefficients of main effects of parents’ family structure and education as well as interactions between parents’ education and family structure in G1 and G2 are omitted from the table. Coefficients of control variables including grandparents’ and parents’ disability status, occupational status, family income, and homeownership as well as grandchildren’s age groups, sex, region, and religion are not presented in the table. Full model results are presented in the Online Appendix Table A2.