Table 1.
Studies included in meta-analysis.
| Author and Year | Country of Study |
Sample |
Mode of Specimen collection |
Depression Measure |
Medical Condition exclusion criteria | Confounders Accounted** For |
Included Stages of Meta- Analysis |
|||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| N | Mean Age or Age Range |
% Male | Name | Categorical or Continuous |
Substances | Medication | Psychosocial | |||||
| Almeida et al., 2007 | Australia | 4245 | 70 + | 100.0% | Serum | GDS-15 | Categorical | CVD conditions | Nicotine Caffeine | Antidepressant | SES Education | 5 |
| Almeida et al., 2009 | Australia | 3700 | 70–85 + | 100.0% | Serum | GDS-15 | Categorical | Physical disorder | Nicotine Caffeine | None | None | 2 |
| Baune et al., 2012 | Australia | 916 | 78.8 | 44.8%. | Serum | GDS-15 | Continuous | Neurological illness, MS, malignancy | Nicotine Caffeine | NSAID Antidepressant Statin | Education | 5 |
| Bjerkeset et al., 2011 | Norway | 8994 | 55.6 | 46.0%. | Serum | HADS-D | Categorical | CVD conditions, DM, asthma, cancer | Nicotine Alcohol Caffeine | None | SES Education | 2,4 |
| Bremmer et al., 2008 | Netherlands | 1285 | 70.0 | 48.9%. | Serum | CES-D 20 | Continuous | CVD conditions, HTN, DM, lung disease | Nicotine Alcohol | NSAID Antidepressant Statin | Education | 5 |
| Carpenter et al., 2012 | USA | 92 | 30.5 | 48.9%. | Plasma | IDS-R | Continuous | All medical and psychiatric disorders | Nicotine | NSAID Antidepressant Statin | SES | 5 |
| Case & Stewart, 2014 | USA | 10,149 | 44.3 | 50.8%. | Serum | PHQ-9 | Continuous | CVD conditions, bronchitis, emphysema, arthritis, HIV, liver disease, kidney disease | Nicotine Alcohol Caffeine | NSAID Statin | Education | 5 |
| Danner et al., 2003 (Female) | USA | 3119 | 17–39 | 0.0%. | Serum | DIS-III | Categorical | Acute illness, chronic inflammatory illness, CVD conditions | Nicotine | Antidepressant Statin | Education | 5 |
| Danner et al., 2003 (Male) | USA | 2981 | 17–39 | 100.0%. | Serum | DIS-III | Categorical | Acute illness, chronic inflammatory illness, CVD conditions | Nicotine | Antidepressant Statin | Education | 5 |
| de Menezes et al., 2017 | Brazil | 14,010 | 51.0 | 45.7% | Serum | CIS-R | Categorical | CVD conditions, DM | Nicotine Alcohol | NSAID Antidepressant | Education | 5 |
| Douglas et al., 2004 (Female) | USA | 125 | 44.0 | 18.0%. | Serum | PHQ-9 | Continuous | CVD conditions | Nicotine Alcohol Caffeine | Statin | None | 2,3 |
| Douglas et al., 2004 (Male) | USA | 571 | 44.0 | 82.0%. | Serum | PHQ-9 | Continuous | CVD conditions | Nicotine Alcohol Caffeine | Statin | None | 2,3 |
| Einvik et al., 2011 | Norway | 267 | 48.0 | 56.0%. | Serum | SCID-IV | Categorical | CVD conditions, DM | Nicotine Caffeine | Statin | Education | 5 |
| Einvik et al., 2013 | Norway | 520 | 48.0 | 54.6%. | Serum | BDI-I | Continuous | CVD conditions, DM | Nicotine Caffeine | None | None | 2 |
| Elovainio et al., 2006 | Finland | 1201 | 31.5 | 40.6%. | Serum | BDI-I | Continuous | CVD conditions, DM, Rheumatoid disease | Nicotine Alcohol | None | SES Education | 2,4 |
| Elovainio et al., 2009 (Female) | Finland | 3257 | 53.0 | 0.0%. | Serum | BDI-I | Continuous | Chronic illness, metabolic syndrome | Nicotine Alcohol | None | Education | 2,4 |
| Elovainio et al., 2009 (Male) | Finland | 2748 | 51.5 | 100.0%. | Serum | BDI-I | Continuous | Chronic illness, metabolic syndrome | Nicotine Alcohol | None | Education | 2,4 |
| Eurelings et al., 2015 (Baseline) | Netherlands | 2047 | 74.2 | 39.3%.* | Serum | GDS-15 | Categorical | CVD conditions | Nicotine | None | Education | 2, 4 |
| Eurelings et al., 2015 (Year 2) | Netherlands | 899 | 74.2 | 39.3%.* | Serum | GDS-15 | Categorical | CVD conditions | Nicotine | None | Education | 2,4 |
| Eurelings et al., 2015 (Year 4) | Netherlands | 566 | 74.2 | 39.3%.* | Serum | GDS-15 | Categorical | CVD conditions | Nicotine | None | Education | 2,4 |
| Forti et al., 2010 (baseline) | Italy | 472 | 74.5 | 45.0%. | Serum | GDS-30 | Categorical | CVD conditions, DM, HTN, cancer, COPD | Caffeine | NSAID | Education | 5 |
| Forti et al., 2010 (Follow-up) | Italy | 312 | 74.5 | 45.0%.* | Serum | GDS-30 | Categorical | CVD conditions, DM, HTN, cancer, COPD | Caffeine | NSAID | Education | 5 |
| Frodi et al., 2012 | Ireland | 83 | 39.1 | 41.0%. | Plasma | HRSD | Categorical | Severe medical illness, head injury | Alcohol | None | None | 2 |
| Gambi et al., 2005 | Italy | 37 | 41.3 | 45.9%. | Serum | BDI-I | Continuous | CVD conditions, DM, Endocrine disorders | Alcohol Caffeine | NSAID Statin Antidepressant Statin | None | 2,3 |
| Glaus et al., 2014 (Atypical depression) | Switzerland | 3157 | 50.9 | 47.0%.* | Plasma | DIGS | Categorical | DM | Nicotine Alcohol Caffeine | SES | 5 | |
| Glaus et al., 2014 (Combination depression) | Switzerland | 3165 | 50.9 | 47.0%* | Plasma | DIGS | Categorical | DM | Nicotine Alcohol Caffeine | Antidepressant Statin | SES | 5 |
| Glaus et al., 2014 (Melancholic depression) | Switzerland | 3257 | 50.9 | 47.0%* | Plasma | DIGS | Categorical | DM | Nicotine Alcohol Caffeine | Antidepressant Statin | SES | 5 |
| Glaus et al., 2014 (unspecified depression) | Switzerland | 3317 | 50.9 | 47.0%* | Plasma | DIGS | Categorical | DM | Nicotine Alcohol Caffeine | Antidepressant Statin | SES | 5 |
| Häfner et al., 2011 (Female) | Germany | 700 | 50.4 | 0.0% | Serum | DEEX | Categorical | Chronic medical conditions, CVD conditions, DM, cancer | Nicotine Alcohol | None | None | 2 |
| Häfner et al., 2011 (Male) | Germany | 847 | 50.3 | 100% | Serum | DEEX | Categorical | Chronic medical conditions, CVD conditions, DM, cancer | Nicotine Alcohol | None | None | 2 |
| Haider et al., 2010 | USA | 868 | 44.8 | 50.2% | Plasma | CES-D | Continuous | CVD conditions, kidney disease, liver disease, cancer, DM | Nicotine Alcohol Caffeine | Antidepressant Statin | Education | 5 |
| Hickman et al., 2014 | USA | 1791 | 29.1 | 30.1% | Serum | CIDI | Categorical | CVD conditions, Kidney disease, emphysema, Rheumatoid arthritis, Liver condition, DM | Nicotine | Antidepressant | Education | 5 |
| Hughes et al., 2012 | Ireland | 78 | 39.5 | 42.3% | Plasma | HAM-D | Continuous | Severe medical illness, head injury | Nicotine Alcohol | Antidepressant | None | 2, 3 |
| Kéri et al., 2014 | Hungary | 80 | 23.2 | 35.0% | Blood (not specified) | SCID-IV, HAM-D |
Categorical | Conditions requiring medication | Nicotine Alcohol Caffeine | Antidepressant Statin |
SES Education | 5 |
| Lamers et al., 2013 (Melancholic Depression) | Netherlands | 654 | 40.2 | 34.2% | Plasma | CIDI | Categorical | CVD, DM | Nicotine Caffeine | Antidepressant Statin |
Education | 5 |
| Lamers et al., 2013 (Atypical Depression) | Netherlands | 665 | 39.6 | 21.5% | Plasma | CIDI | Categorical | CVD, DM | Nicotine Caffeine | Antidepressant Statin |
Education | 5 |
| Lehto et al., 2010 | Finland | 122 | 53.8 | 31.1% | Serum | SCID-IV, HAM-D | Categorical | CVD conditions, rheumatoid arthritis | Alcohol Caffeine | NSAID | None | 2, 3 |
| Liu et al., 2014 (Female) | USA | 5004 | 46.7 | 0.0% | Blood (not specified) | PHQ-9 | Categorical | Chronic illness, CVD conditions, cancer | N ic otine Alcohol | NSAID | SES Education | 5 |
| Liu et al., 2014 (Male) | USA | 5312 | 46.7 | 100.0% | Blood (not specified) | PHQ-9 | Categorical | Chronic illness, CVD conditions, cancer | Nicotine Alcohol | NSAID | SES Education | 5 |
| Meier et al., 2016 | USA | 110 | 32.8 | 32.0% | Serum | SCID | Categorical | CVD conditions, respiratory illness, endocrine disorders, neurological diseases, autoimmune diseases | Alcohol Caffeine | Antidepressant | None | 2, 3 |
| Milaneschi et al., 2009 | Italy | 991 | 75.0 | 44.1% | Serum | CES-D | Continuous | CVD conditions, HTN, DM, COPD, arthritis | Nicotine Alcohol Caffeine | NSAID Antidepressant | Education | 5 |
| Miller et al., 2002 | USA | 100 | 30.0 | 32.0% | Serum | DISH | Categorical | All medical conditions and acute infections | Nicotine | NSAID Antidepressant Statin | Education | 5 |
| Miller et al., 2003 | USA | 100 | 30.3 | 32.0% | Serum | HAM-D | Categorical | Acute illness, Chronic medical conditions | Nicotine | NSAID Antidepressant Statin | Education | 5 |
| Morris et al., 2011 (Caucasian Female) | USA | 166 | 52 | 0.0% | Plasma | BDI-II | Continuous | DM | Nicotine | None | Education | 2, 4 |
| Morris et al., 2011 (Black Female) | USA | 147 | 50 | 0.0% | Plasma | BDI-II | Continuous | DM | Nicotine | None | Education | 2, 4 |
| Morris et al., 2011 (Caucasian Male) | USA | 104 | 52 | 100.0% | Plasma | BDI-II | Continuous | DM | Nicotine | None | Education | 2,4 |
| Morris et al., 2011 (Black Male) | USA | 95 | 48 | 0.0% | Plasma | BDI-II | Continuous | DM | Nicotine | None | Education | 2,4 |
| Mwendwa et al., 2013 | USA | 198 | 45.6 | 48.0% | Serum | BDI-II | Continuous | Physical illness | None | None | Education | 4 |
| Naghashpour et al., 2011 | Iran | 98 | 37.0 | 0.0% | Serum | BDI-I | Categorical | CVD conditions, DM, HTN, allergies, asthma, cancer, polycystic ovarian syndrome | Caffeine | NSAID Antidepressant Statin | None | 2, 3 |
| Pan et al., 2008 | China | 3289 | 58.6 | 44.3% | Plasma | CES-D | Categorical | CVD conditions, Self-care disabilities, cancer, neurological disorders, AIDS | Nicotine Alcohol Caffeine | NSAID | SES Education | 5 |
| Panagiotakos et al., 2004 (Female) | Greece | 400 | 44 | 0.0% | Serum | ZDRS | Continuous | Hypercholesterolemia, DM | Nicotine Alcohol Caffeine | None | SES Education | 2,4 |
| Panagiotakos et al., 2004 (Male) | Greece | 453 | 45 | 100.0% | Serum | ZDRS | Continuous | Hypercholesterolemia, DM | Nicotine Alcohol Caffeine | None | SES Education | 2,4 |
| Penninx et al., 2003 | USA | 3024 | 73.6 | 48.5% | Serum | CES-D | Categorical | CVD conditions, DM, osteoarthritis, lung disease | Nicotine Alcohol | NSAID | None | 2, 3 |
| Piletz et al., 2009 | USA | 39 | 39.5 | 15.4% | Plasma | SCID-IV, HAM-D | Categorical | CVD conditions, DM, seizures, HTN, Acute infection | Nicotine Alcohol Caffeine | NSAID Antidepressant Statin | None | 2, 3 |
| Pizzi et al., 2008 | Italy | 415 | 57.6 | 51.7% | Blood (not specified) | BDI-II | Continuous | CVD conditions, DM, kidney failure, liver failure, neurological conditions, inflammatory disesae | Nicotine Caffeine | Antidepressant Statin | None | 2, 3 |
| Politi et al., 2008 | Italy | 50 | 53.4 | 47.0% | Blood (not specified) | Clinical Interview (DSM-IV) |
Categorical | CVD conditions, physical disorders, abnormal hematological, renal, liver function tests | Nicotine | None | None | 2 |
| Prohan et al., 2014 | Iran | 60 | 21.0 | 100.0% | Serum | BDI-II | Categorical | All medical disorders | Nicotine Caffeine | None | None | 2 |
| Ranjit et al., 2007 | USA | 6778 | 62.2 | 38.5% | Serum | CES-D | Categorical | DM | Nicotine Alcohol Caffeine | NSAID Statin | SES Education | 5 |
| Sarandol et al., 2006 | Turkey | 122 | 39.5 | 27.9% | Serum | HDRS | Categorical | Chronic illness via lab tests, acute infection | Nicotine Caffeine | NSAID Statin | None | 2, 3 |
| Savitz et al., 2015 | USA | 107 | 33.5 | 35.0% | Serum | SCID IV | Categorical | CVD conditions, respiratory illness, endocrine disorders, neurological diseases | Caffeine | NSAID Antidepressant | None | 2, 3 |
| Slopen et al., 2010 | USA | 177 | 57.9 | 44.6% | Serum | CES-D | Continuous | CVD conditions, DM, prior cancer | Nicotine Caffeine | Antidepressant Statin | Education | 5 |
| Smagula et al., 2014 | USA | 2560 | 76.4 | 100.0% | Serum | GDS-15 | Categorical | CVD conditions, DM, HTN, COPD, Parkinson’s disease, arthritis | Nicotine Alcohol Caffeine | NSAID Antidepressant | Education | 5 |
| Song et al., 2015 (Female) | Korea | 341 | 71.6 | 0.0% | Serum | CES-D | Continuous | CVD conditions, DM, HTN, metabolic syndrome, dyslipidemia, asthma, cancer, osteoporosis, hepatitis B, glaucoma, asthma, pulmonary tuberculosis | Nicotine Alcohol Caffeine | None | Education | 2,4 |
| Song et al., 2015 (Male) | Korea | 223 | 72.8 | 100.0% | Serum | CES-D | Continuous | CVD conditions, DM, HTN, metabolic syndrome, dyslipidemia, asthma, cancer, osteoporosis, hepatitis B, glaucoma, asthma, pulmonary tuberculosis | Nicotine Alcohol Caffeine | None | Education | 2,4 |
| Stewart et al., 2008 | USA | 316 | 60.6 | 50.9% | Serum | BDI-II | Continuous | Chronic medical disorders, high blood pressure | Nicotine Alcohol Caffeine | Statin | Education | 5 |
| Su et al., 2009 | USA | 188 | 55.0 | 100.0% | Plasma | BDI-II | Continuous | CVD conditions, HTN | Nicotine Caffeine | None | Education | 2, 4 |
| Suarez, 2004 | USA | 127 | 27.6 | 55.1% | Blood (not specified) | BDI-I | Continuous | CVD conditions, acute infection, DM, HTN, rheumatoid arthritis Asthma, Allergies, Chronic pain, Cancer | Nicotine Alcohol Caffeine | NSAID Antidepressant Statin | None | 2, 3 |
| Toker et al., 2005 (Female) | Israel | 630 | 45.2 | 0.0% | Serum | PHQ-9 | Continuous | CVD conditions, Inflammatory illness, rheumatic diseases, peripheral blood diseases, cancer | Nicotine Caffeine | NSAID Antidepressant Statin | None | 2, 3 |
| Toker et al., 2005 (Male) | Israel | 933 | 45.2 | 100.0% | Serum | PHQ-9 | Continuous | CVD conditions, Inflammatory illness, rheumatic diseases, peripheral blood diseases, cancer | Nicotine Caffeine | NSAID Antidepressant Statin | None | 2, 3 |
| Tully et al., 2016 (Persistent MDD) | Australia | 584 | 51.2 | 100.0% | Blood (not specified) | BDI-I | Categorical | CVD conditions, DM, osteoarthritis, OS A, rheumatoid arthritis | Caffeine | Statin | SES | 5 |
| Tully et al., 2016 (Remitted Depression+) | Australia | 553 | 51.7 | 100.0% | Blood (not specified) | BDI-I | Categorical | CVD conditions, DM, osteoarthritis, OS A, rheumatoid arthritis | Caffeine | Statin | SES | 5 |
| Ventorp et al., 2015 | Sweden | 38 | 36.8 | 45.6% | Plasma | Clinical Interview (DSM-IV) |
Categorical | CVD conditions, Somatic conditions | None | Antidepressant | None | 3 |
| Verduijn et al., 2015 (Female) | Netherlands | 864 | 41.8 | 0.0% | Plasma | IDS | Categorical | CVD conditions, DM, lung diseases, rheumatic diseases, cancer, ulcer, intestinal problems, liver disease, epilepsy, thyroid problems | Nicotine Alcohol Caffeine | NSAID Antidepressant |
Education | 5 |
| Verduijn et al., 2015 (Male) | Netherlands | 447 | 41.8 | 100.0% | Plasma | CIDI | Categorical | CVD conditions, DM, lung diseases, arthritis, cancer, ulcer, intestinal problems, liver disease, epilepsy, thyroid gland disease | Nicotine Alcohol Caffeine | NSAID Antidepressant |
Education | 5 |
| Vogelzangs et al., 2012 | Netherlands | 1626 | 41.8 | 33.0% | Plasma | CIDI | Categorical | CVD conditions, DM, lung diseases, arthritis, cancer, ulcer, intestinal problems, liver disease, epilepsy, thyroid gland disease | Nicotine Alcohol | NSAID Antidepressant Statin |
Education | 5 |
| Zeman et al., 2009 | Czech Republic |
76 | 58.5 | 0.0% | Blood (not specified) | HAM-D | Categorical | CVD conditions, DM, renal disease, hypothyroidism, malignancies, macroalbuminuria | Nicotine Alcohol Caffeine | None | SES Education | 2 |
| Zoga et al., 2014 | Greece | 80 | 51.7 | 0.0% | Serum | SCID, HDRS | Categorical | Chronic immune illness, acute infection, allergic reactions, neurological disorders | Caffeine | NSAID Statin | None | 2, 3 |
A total of 58 studies, with k = 78 analyses, were included in the meta-analysis.
*
% male given is for N of entire study rather than the subgroup. If the mean age was not provided for stratified results (e.g., sex), the mean age of the entire sample is provided.
**
Confounders were considered accounted for if they were part of exclusion criteria, controlled for statistically, or in the case of substances and medications, were controlled through abstinence. Statin use also includes control for additional anti-hypertensive medications.
+
in the case of Tully et al. (2016), the analysis included was a cross-sectional of individuals with depression which later remitted. The analysis included represents the association between GRP and depression prior to remission.
All studies in this table were included in Stage One meta-analysis. Inclusion in Stages Two-Four was a prerequisite for inclusion in Stage Five.
Depression Measure Acronyms Self-Report: GDS: Geriatric Depression Scale; HADS: Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale; CESD-R: Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale-Revised; IDS-R: Inventory for Depressive Symptomatology-Revised; PHQ-9: Patient Health Questionnaire; BDI: Beck Depression Inventory; DEEX: DEpression and Exhaustion subscale; ZDRS: Zung Depression Rating Scale.
Depression Measure Acronyms Clinician Scales: DIS: Diagnostic Interview Schedule; CIS-R: Clinical Interview Schedule-Revised; SGID: Structured Clinical Interview Diagnostic; HRSD/HAM-D: Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression; DIGS: Diagnostic Interview for Genetic Studies; CIDI: Composite International Diagnostic Interview; DISH: Depression Interview and Structured Hamilton.
Physical Condition Acronyms: CVD: Cardiovascular Disease, DM: Diabetes Mellitus, MS: Multiple Sclerosis, HTN: Hypertension, HIV: human immunodeficiency virus, AIDS: acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. COPD; Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, OSA: obstructive sleep apnea.