FIG. 3.

Strength of LLM plotted against the filtering time scale. Here Δt is the LES time step size, Δt_c = Δx/〈u(y = 0.5Δy)〉, and T_i = h_wm/κu_τ. The line at 0.025 indicates the expected uncertainty in evaluating the strength of LLM owing to the variation in the von Kármán constant. For the cases shown here, y₀ = 0.0001δ, which corresponds to Re_τ = 1400.