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. 2019 Oct 21;9:268. doi: 10.1038/s41398-019-0602-7

Table 1.

Most commonly studied cognitive domains, paradigms, and measures

Domain Paradigm Metacognitive measure Description of paradigm
Memory Repeated Checking Task Confidence level (N-BF) Participants manipulate different objects (e.g. light switches) and rate their memory confidence. The effects of repeated checking on memory confidence are assessed.
Repeated Cleaning Task Confidence level (N-BF) Participants clean different objects and rate their memory confidence in cleaning those objects. The effects of repeated cleaning on memory confidence are assessed.
Verbal Memory Task Confidence level and FOK/JOL measures (N-BF)a Participants memorize words and after a time interval perform a recall or recognition and rate their memory confidence.
Visual Memory Task Confidence level and FOK/JOL measures (N-BF)a Participants memorize visual stimuli and after a time interval perform a recall or recognition and rate their memory confidence.
False-Memory Task Confidence level, confidence in errors and discrimination (N-BF) Most studies made use of the Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm. Word lists are presented and after a time interval a recognition test with old and new words (i.e. lure words) is administered and memory confidence is asked.
Source-Monitoring Task Confidence level, confidence in errors and discrimination (N-BF) A wordlist is presented and participants create semantic associations for each word. Afterwards, participants recognize original (old) and self-created (new) words, their source (i.e. experimenter or self) and rate their memory confidence.
Perception Perceptual Decision Making Task Confidence level (N-BF), metacognitive sensitivity (i.e. meta-d’) and efficiency (i.e. meta-d’/d’) (BF) Participants make a two-alternative decision about perceptual stimuli (i.e. which box contains most dots) and rate their confidence in each decision.
General Knowledge General Knowledge Task Confidence level (N-BF) Participants answer general knowledge questions and rate their level of confidence.
Action Muscle Tension Task Confidence level (N-BF) Participants produce certain levels of muscle tension and rate their confidence about their subjective muscle tension estimates.
Other Predictive Inference Task Confidence level (N-BF) Participants predict the position of a certain particle and state their confidence in their prediction, while the environment is changing over time.
Wisconsin Card Sorting Task Confidence level (N-BF) Participants figure out a sorting rule and rate their confidence in this rule. The sorting rule changes over time and the participants have to relearn the rule.
Emotion Task Confidence level (N-BF) Participants recognize facial emotions and state their confidence.

Most tasks involve retrospective confidence judgements after every decision or action

FOK feeling of knowing, JOL judgement of learning, N-BF non bias free, BF bias free

aTask paradigm that uses both prospective and retrospective confidence judgments