Table 5.
Demographic, metabolic, immunological and genetic markers in children with parents diagnosed with type 1 diabetes before and after the birth of the index child
| Variable | n | Before, n=349 (87.0%) | After, n=52 (13.0%) | p value | Adjusted p valuea |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Demographics | |||||
| Age at diagnosis, years, median (range) | 401 | 6.98 (0.59–14.96) | 9.57 (1.60–14.94) | 0.001 | |
| Sex, male, % (95% CI) | 401 | 54.4 (49.2, 59.7) | 65.4 (52.5, 78.3) | 0.183 | |
| Affected parent, father, % (95% CI) | 401 | 66.2 (61.2, 71.2) | 50.0 (36.4, 63.6) | 0.034 | 0.006 |
| Pubertal, % (95% CI) | 313 | 12.1 (8.3, 15.9) | 31.3 (15.2, 47.3) | 0.007 | 0.964 |
| Metabolic decompensation at diagnosis | |||||
| Duration of symptoms, % | 368 | 0.962 | 0.807 | ||
| No symptoms | 1.3 | 0 | |||
| <1 week | 37.3 | 36.7 | |||
| 1–4 weeks | 47.6 | 51.0 | |||
| >4 weeks | 13.8 | 12.2 | |||
| Impaired consciousness, % (95% CI) | 386 | 1.8 (0.4, 3.2) | 0 | 1.000 | 0.998 |
| Ketoacidosis, % (95% CI) | 393 | 7.9 (5.1, 10.8) | 5.8 (0, 12.1) | 0.782 | 0.645 |
| Weight loss, kg, median (range) | 368 | 0.30 (0–15.0) | 1.10 (0–7.0) | 0.065 | 0.442 |
| Weight loss, %, median (range) | 367 | 1.6 (0–21.3) | 3.8 (0–19.7) | 0.195 | 0.316 |
| pH, median (range) | 393 | 7.40 (6.97–7.54) | 7.40 (7.20–7.45) | 0.303 | 0.269 |
| β-Hydroxybutyrate, mmol/l, median (range) | 346 | 0.50 (0–12.1) | 0.49 (0–17.4) | 0.960 | 0.850 |
| Plasma glucose, mmol/l, median (range) | 396 | 21.7 (3.6–62.8) | 20.3 (4.8–63.7) | 0.417 | 0.452 |
| HbA1c, mmol/mol, median (range) | 63 | 72.0 (38.0–141.5) | 107.0 (71.0–132.8) | 0.007 | 0.007 |
| HbA1c, %, median (range) | 63 | 8.7 (5.6–15.1) | 12.0 (8.7–14.3) | 0.006 | 0.007 |
| Autoantibodies | |||||
| ICA, % (95% CI) | 379 | 90.3 (87.1, 93.5) | 92.0 (84.5, 99.5) | 1.000 | 0.380 |
| ICA, JDFU, median (range) | 343 | 49.0 (3.0–2620.0) | 64.0 (4.0–2048.0) | 0.463 | 0.963 |
| IAA, % (95% CI) | 379 | 52.0 (46.6, 57.4) | 32.0 (19.1, 44.9) | 0.013 | 0.163 |
| IAA, RU, median (range) | 187 | 10.6 (2.9–484.9) | 14.0 (3.0–338.7) | 0.197 | 0.463 |
| IA-2A, % (95% CI) | 379 | 74.5 (69.8, 79.2) | 88.0 (79.0, 97.0) | 0.055 | 0.022 |
| IA-2A, RU, median (range) | 289 | 104.4 (0.9–202.5) | 87.1 (1.4–157.5) | 0.201 | 0.375 |
| GADA, % (95% CI) | 379 | 67.5 (62.4, 72.5) | 62.0 (48.5, 75.5) | 0.545 | 0.381 |
| GADA, RU, median (range) | 253 | 45.4 (5.4–3800.0) | 47.9 (6.3–277.4) | 0.782 | 0.385 |
| ZnT8A, % (95% CI) | 379 | 62.6 (57.4, 67.8) | 76.0 (64.2, 87.8) | 0.092 | 0.115 |
| ZnT8A, RU, median (range) | 244 | 10.4 (0.5–186.7) | 17.0 (0.6–138.4) | 0.396 | 0.297 |
| Number of positive antibodies, median (mean) | 379 | 4 (3.47) | 4 (3.50) | 0.701 | 0.292 |
| Number of positive biochemical antibodies, median (mean) | 379 | 3 (2.57) | 3 (2.58) | 0.810 | 0.932 |
| Autoantibody negative, % (95% CI) | 379 | 3.0 (1.2, 4.9) | 6.0 (0, 12.6) | 0.393 | 0.709 |
| Positivity for multiple (≥2) autoantibodies, % (95% CI) | 379 | 92.7 (89.9, 95.5) | 94.0 (87.4, 1) | 1.000 | 0.373 |
| Genetics | 401 | ||||
| DR3-DQ2/DR4-DQ8, % (95% CI) | 22.9 (18.5, 27.3) | 19.2 (8.5, 29.9) | 0.677 | 0.483 | |
| DR3-DQ2/xb, % (95% CI) | 14.0 (10.4, 17.7) | 9.6 (1.6, 17.6) | 0.513 | 0.465 | |
| DR4-DQ8/yc, % (95% CI) | 53.6 (48.3, 58.8) | 51.9 (38.3, 65.5) | 0.940 | 0.923 | |
| xb/yc, % (95% CI) | 9.5 (6.4, 12.5) | 19.2 (8.5, 29.9) | 0.059 | 0.069 | |
| DR3-DQ2, % (95% CI) | 37.0 (31.9, 42.0) | 28.8 (16.5, 41.2) | 0.325 | 0.261 | |
| DR4-DQ8, % (95% CI) | 76.5 (72.1, 81.0) | 71.2 (58.8, 83.5) | 0.505 | 0.424 | |
| Risk group, % | 0.125 | 0.404 | |||
| 0 | 0.6 | 0 | |||
| 1 | 1.1 | 3.8 | |||
| 2 | 11.5 | 23.1 | |||
| 3 | 22.3 | 15.4 | |||
| 4 | 41.5 | 38.5 | |||
| 5 | 22.9 | 19.2 | |||
Categorical variables are presented as % (95% CI) and continuous variables as median (range)
For comparing frequencies, cross tabulation and χ2-statistics with continuity correction or Fisher’s exact test when appropriate were used. Differences in levels were determined using Kruskal–Wallis test or the Mann–Whitney U test. Adjustment for confounding factors was performed using logistic/ordinal/multinomial regression for dichotomous/ordinal/categorical variables and quantile regression in R for skewed variables
aAdjusted for sex and age at diagnosis
bx ≠ DR4-DQ8
cy ≠ DR3-DQ2
JDFU, Juvenile Diabetes Foundation unit; RU, relative units