Fig. 1.

The consequences of PA-induced ER stress. At high concentrations, PA is converted to saturated lysophosphatidylcholine and DAG, which are incorporated into the ER. This causes ER stress and activation of ER stress sensors: IRE1α and PERK. The same pathways are activated during the detection of unfolded proteins. In particular, eIF2α phosphorylation, represses the translation of many genes with the exception of few, such as CHOP or ATF4. Then NF-κB is activated, which leads to apoptosis suppression and induction of inflammatory reactions. Activation of ER stress sensors is involved in increasing the capacity to maintain autophagy in stressed cells; however, severe ER stress leads to cell apoptosis